andreagassi agassi is the first of two male players with rafael nadal in history to have achieved a singles career golden slam and along with rod laver don budge fred perry roy emerson roger federer and nadal one of seven men to have achieved a career grand slamone of four with laver federer and nadal since the beginning of the open era he won eight grand slam singles tournaments in fifteen grand slam final appearances he also won seventeen atp masters series tournaments a record from 20042010  he won the 1990 atp tour world championships and was part of a winning davis cup team in 1990 and 1992 and the australian open 2003 after suffering from sciatica caused by two bulging discs in his back a spondylolisthesis vertebral displacement and a bone spur that interfered with the nerve agassi retired from professional tennis on september 3 2006 after losing in the third round of the us open he is the founder of the  andre agassi charitable foundation which has raised over 60million for atrisk children in southern nevada agassi was born in las vegas to emmanuel mike aghassian and elizabeth betty agassi ne dudley his father is an iranian of armenian and assyrian origin who represented iran in boxing at the 1948 and 1952 olympic games before immigrating to the united states andre agassis mother betty is a breast cancer survivor mike agassi reportedly banged on the fences with a hammer during andres matches when his son lost a point screamed at officials and was ejected more than once  in an extended passage from the book open agassi details how he and his father hustled the greatest running back in football history jim brown back in 1979 when agassi was just 9 years old as agassi recounts in his autobiography open jim brown was at a tennis club in vegas one day complaining to the owner about a money match that was cancelled  agassis father stepped in told brown that he could play his son and put up his house for the wager  brown countered with a 10000 bet instead  after asking the 9yearold some questions about his skills agassi told him he never loses and getting warned by the club owner not to take the bet brown and mike agassi agreed that theyd set the amount after he and andre played two sets  after dropping two straight sets by a score of 36 brown politely declined the 10k wager and offered 500 for the third he lost 62 at age 13 andre was sent to nick bollettieris tennis academy in florida he turned professional at the age of 16 and his first tournament was in la quinta california he won his first match against john austin 64 62 but then lost his second match to mats wilander 61 61  by the end of the year agassi was ranked world no 91  agassi won his first toplevel singles title in 1987 at the sul american open in itaparica his yearend ranking was world no 3 behind secondranked ivan lendl and topranked mats wilander both the association of tennis professionals and tennis magazine named agassi the most improved player of the year for 1988 in addition to not playing the australian open which would later become his best grand slam event for the first eight years of his career agassi chose not to play at wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the events traditionalism particularly its predominantly white dress code to which players at the event are required to conform strong performances on the tour meant that agassi was quickly tipped as a future grand slam champion  while still a teenager he reached the semifinals of both the french open and the us open in 1988 and made the us open semifinals in 1989  he began the 1990s however with a series of nearmisses he reached his first grand slam final in 1990 at the french open where he was favored before losing in four sets to andrs gmez he reached his second grand slam final of the year at the us open defeating defending champion boris becker in the semifinals  his opponent in the final was pete sampras a year earlier agassi had beaten sampras 62 61 after which he told his coach that he felt bad for sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro  agassi lost the us open final to sampras 64 63 62 in 1991 agassi reached his second consecutive french open final where he faced fellow bollettieri academy alumnus jim courier courier emerged the victor in a five set final  agassi decided to play at wimbledon in 1991 leading to weeks of speculation in the media about the clothes he would wear he eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit he went on to reach the quarterfinals on that occasion losing in five sets to david wheaton agassis grand slam tournament breakthrough came at wimbledon not at the french open or the us open where he had previously enjoyed success  in 1992 he defeated goran ivanievi in a five set final with new coach brad gilbert on board agassi began to employ more of a tactical consistent approach which fueled his resurgence  agassi started slowly in 1994 losing in the first week at the french open and wimbledon nevertheless agassi emerged during the hard court season winning the canadian open his comeback culminated at the 1994 us open with a 5set fourthround victory against compatriot michael chang and then becoming the first man to capture the us open as an unseeded player beating michael stich in the final in 1995 agassi shaved his balding head breaking with his old image is everything style he competed in the 1995 australian open his first appearance at the event and won beating sampras in a four set final agassi reached the world no 1 ranking for the first time in april 1995  he held that ranking until november for a total of 30 weeks  in terms of winloss record 1995 was agassis best year he won 73 matches and lost only 9  agassi was also once again a key player on the united states davis cup winning team  the third and final davis cup title of agassis career in 1998 agassi began a rigorous conditioning program and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in challenger series tournaments a circuit for pro players ranked outside the worlds top 50  he also played classic matches in this period against pete sampras and patrick rafter in 1998 agassi won five titles and leapt from world no 110 to no 6 the highest jump into the top 10 made by any player during a  calendar year  at wimbledon he had an early loss in the second round to atp player tommy haas he won five titles in ten finals and was runnerup at the masters series tournament in key biscayne losing to marcelo ros who became world no 1 as a result agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat andrei medvedev in a fiveset french open final becoming at the time only the fifth male player joining rod laver fred perry roy emerson and don budgethese have since been joined by a sixth roger federer and a seventh rafael nadal to have won all four grand slam singles titles during his career  this win also made him the first of only three the second being roger federer and the third being rafael nadal male players in history to have won all four grand slam titles on three different surfaces clay grass and hard courts a tribute to his adaptability as the other four men had won their grand slam titles on clay and grass courts  agassi also became the first of only two the second being rafael nadal male player to win the career golden slam consisting of all four grand slam tournaments plus an olympic gold medal agassi followed his 1999 french open victory by reaching the wimbledon final where he lost to sampras in straight sets agassi began the next year by capturing his second australian open title beating sampras in a fiveset semifinal and yevgeny kafelnikov in a fourset final   at the time agassi was also only the fourth player since laver to be the reigning champion of three of four grand slam events missing only the wimbledon title agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his australian open title with a straightsets final win over arnaud clment with sampras 677 767 762 765 with no breaks of serve during the 48game match  despite the setback agassi finished 2001 ranked world no 3 becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 10 in three different decades 1980s  finishing world no 3 in 1988 and no 7 in 1989 1990s  finishing world no 4 in 1990 no 10 in 1991 no 9 in 1992 no 2 in 1994 and 1995 no 8 in 1996 no 6 in 1998 and no 1 in 1999 2000s  finishing world no 6 in 2000 no 3 in 2001 no 2 in 2002 no 4 in 2003 no 8 in 2004 and no 7 in 2005  he also was the oldest player age 31 to finish in the top three since 32year old connors finished at world no 2 in 1984 in 2003 agassi won the eighth and final grand slam title of his career at the australian open where he beat rainer schttler in straight sets in the final  in march he won his sixth career and third consecutive key biscayne title in the process surpassing his wife steffi graf who was a 5time winner of the event the final was his 18th straight win in that tournament which broke the previous record of 17 set by sampras from 19931995  agassis winning streak continued to 20 after winning his first two matches at the 2004 edition of that tournament before bowing to agustn calleri with the victory agassi became the youngest 19 years old and oldest 32 winner of the key biscayne tournament  on april 28 2003 he recaptured the world no 1 ranking after a quarterfinal victory over xavier malisse at the queens club championships to become the oldest top ranked male player since the atp rankings began at 33 years and 13 days he held the world no 1 ranking for two weeks when lleyton hewitt took it back on may 12 2003  agassi then recaptured the world no 1 ranking once again on june 16 2003 which he held for 12 weeks until september 7 2003  during his career agassi held the world no 1 ranking for a total of 101 weeks  agassis ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from many events he did manage to reach the us open semifinals where he lost to juan carlos ferrero and surrendered his world no 1 ranking to ferrero at the yearending tennis masters cup agassi lost in the final to federer and finished the year ranked world no 4  at age 33 he was the oldest player to rank in the top five since connors at age 35 was world no 4 in 1987 in 2004 agassi began the year with a fiveset loss in the semifinals of the australian open to marat safin the loss ended agassis 26match winning streak at the event a record that still stands   agassi won the masters series event in cincinnati to bring his career total to 59 toplevel singles titles and a record 17 atp masters series titles having already won seven of the nine atp masters tournamentall except the tournaments in monte carlo and hamburg at 34 he became the secondoldest singles champion in cincinnati tournament history the tournament began in 1899 surpassed only by ken rosewall who won the title in 1970 at age 35  he finished the year ranked world no 8 the oldest player to finish in the top 10 since the 36yearold connors was world no 7 in 1988 agassis 2005 began with a quarterfinal loss to federer at the australian open agassi had several other deep runs at tournaments but had to withdraw from several events due to injury he lost to jarkko nieminen in the first round of the french open he won his fourth title in los angeles and reached the final of the rogers cup before falling to world no 2 rafael nadal agassis 2005 was defined by an improbable run to the us open final  after beating rzvan sabu and ivo karlovi in straight sets and tom berdych in four sets agassi won three consecutive fiveset matches to advance to the final the most notable of these matches was his quarterfinal victory over james blake where he rallied from two sets down to win 36 36 63 63 766  his other fiveset victims were xavier malisse in the fourth round and robby ginepri in the semifinals  in the final agassi faced federer who was seeking his second consecutive us open title and his sixth grand slam title in two years  federer defeated agassi in four sets although agassi gave him a scare when agassi was up a break in the third set after splitting the first two sets before the 2005 tennis masters cup in shanghai agassi rolled his ankle in a racquetball accident and tore several ligaments he was unable to walk for weeks he nevertheless committed to the tournament in which he was seeded third and played nikolay davydenko in his first round robin match  agassis movement was noticeably hindered particularly on his backhand return of serve and he lost in straight sets he then withdrew from the tournament agassi finished 2005 ranked world no 7 his 16th time in the yearend top 10 rankings which tied connors for the most times ranked in the top 10 at years end  in 2005 agassi left nike after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with adidas a major reason for agassi leaving nike was because nike refused to donate to agassis charities and adidas was more than happy to do so agassi had a poor start to 2006  he was still recovering from an ankle injury and also suffering from back and leg pain and lack of match play  agassi withdrew from the australian open because of the ankle injury and his back injury and other pains forced him to withdraw from several other events eventually skipping the entire clay court season including the french open this caused his ranking to drop out of the top 10 for the last time agassi returned for the grass court season playing a tuneup and then wimbledon he was defeated in the third round by world no 2 and eventual runnerup rafael nadal 765 62 64  against conventions agassi the losing player was interviewed on court after the match  at wimbledon agassi announced his plans to retire following the us open agassi played only two events during the summer hardcourt season with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the countrywide classic in los angeles to fernando gonzlez of chile 64 36 75  as a result he was unseeded at the us open agassi had a short but dramatic run in his final us open because of extreme back pain agassi was forced to receive antiinflammatory injections after every match  after a tough fourset win against andrei pavel agassi faced eighthseeded marcos baghdatis in the second round who had earlier advanced to the 2006 australian open final and wimbledon semifinals  agassi won 64 64 36 57 75 as the younger baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set  in his last match agassi fell to 112th ranked bigserving benjamin becker of germany in four sets  agassi received an eight minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a memorable retirement speech agassi earned more than us 30million in prizemoney during his career fourth only to federer sampras and nadal to date he also earned more than us 25million a year through endorsements during his career and fourth in all sports at the time  since retiring after the 2006 us open agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity  on september 5 2007 agassi was a surprise guest commentator for the andy roddickroger federer us open quarterfinal he played an exhibition match at wimbledon teaming with his wife steffi graf to play with tim henman and kim clijsters he played world team tennis for the philadelphia freedoms in the summer of 2009 and played at the outback champions series event for the first time he played the cancer treatment centers of america tennis championships at surprise arizona where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion todd martin on the way to the final agassi beat mikael pernfors in the quarterfinals and wayne ferreira in the semifinals he also announced that he will not be playing the tour on a fulltime basis and  played the tournament as a favor to longtime friend jim courier andre played a charity tournament with sampras federer and nadal for haitian earthquake relief  in early 2011 agassi will play a series of exhibition matches httpwwwriseoflegends2011com rise of legends  in taiwan with marat safin at the taipei arena on jan 6 2011 and kaohsiung arena on jan 8 2011  on august 2010 he made an exhibition game in coliseo cubierto el campin in bogota colombia with pete sampras anna kournikova and other professional tennis players early in his career agassi would look to end points quickly typically by inducing a weak return with a deep hard shot and then playing a winner at an extreme angle  his return of serve baseline game and keen sense of anticipation were among the best in the game and helped him win the wimbledon title in 1992  on the rare occasion that he charged the net agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for the winner agassi continually put pressure on opponents with a preference to taking the ball early and was known for swinging deep angles like a powerful backhand up the line  his strength was in dictating play from the back of the court  while growing up his father and nick bollettieri trained him in this way  when in control of a point agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors and to make his opponent run more agassis serve was never the strength of his game but it improved steadily over the course of his career to being above average he often used his hard slice serve in the deuce service box to send his opponent off the court followed by a shot to the opposite corner  agassis service speed when hitting a flat first serve would range between convert110  his second serve was usually heavy kick serve in the mid 80s agassi married actress brooke shields on april 19 1997  in february 1998 they filed suit against the national enquirer claiming it printed false and fabricated statements about the couple but the case was dismissed the couple later filed for divorce which was granted on april 9 1999 at the 1999 french open agassi and steffi graf were the surprise champions since he had not won a grand slam title since 1995 and she since 1996  at the winners ball they met each other for the second time   shortly after they started dating   graf retired after they both reached the wimbledon final in july they were married on october 22 2001  their son jaden gil was born four days later october 26  their daughter jaz elle was born on october 3 2003  the couple live in the las vegas area and own several vacation homes agassis older sister rita was married to tennis player pancho gonzales in 1995 when gonzales died in las vegas andre paid for the funeral  andres other sister tami like their mother betty is a breast cancer survivor longtime trainer gil reyes has been called one of agassis closest friends some have described him as being a father figure in december 2008 agassis childhood friend and former business manager perry rogers sued graf for 50000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him agassis autobiography open written with assistance from j r moehringer was published in november 2009  in it agassi admitted that his once distinctive bushy mane was actually a wig and to using and testing positive for methamphetamine in 1997  in response to the latter revelation roger federer declared himself shocked and disappointed while sergej bubka declared that agassi should have been disqualified  in an exclusive interview to cbs agassi justified himself and asked for understanding saying that  it was a period in my life where i needed help he also revealed that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him he also revealed he thought pete sampras was robotic the book reached 1 on the new york times best seller list and received favorable reviews agassi has donated more than 100000 to democratic candidates  however on september 1 2010 when agassi appeared on daily wnyc public radio program the brian lehrer show agassi stated that he is a registered independent agassi founded the andre agassi charitable association in 1994 which assists las vegas young people  agassi was awarded the atp arthur ashe humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth he is regularly cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis it has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation agassis charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential  his boys  girls club sees 2000 children throughout the year and boasts a world class junior tennis team it also has a basketball program the agassi stars and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics in 2001 agassi opened the andre agassi college preparatory academy in las vegas a tuitionfree charter school for atrisk children in the area  in 2009 the graduating class had 100 percent graduation rate and a 100 percent college acceptance rate  among other childrelated programs that agassi supports through his andre agassi charitable foundation is clark countys only residential facility for abused and neglected children child haven in 1997 agassi donated funding to child haven for a sixroom classroom building now named the agassi center for education his foundation also provided 720000 to assist in the building of the andre agassi cottage for medically fragile children this 20 bed facility opened in december 2001 and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases  in 2007 agassi muhammad ali lance armstrong warrick dunn jeff gordon mia hamm tony hawk andrea jaeger jackie joynerkersee mario lemieux alonzo mourning and cal ripken jr founded the charity httpwwwathletesforhopeorg athletes for hope  which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities in 2005 tennis magazine named him the 7th greatest male playerand 12th greatest player overallfor the period 1965 through 2005 other records atp world tour masters 1000 formerly atp masters series titles 17 second only to nadal 18 oldest top ranked male player in the atp entry rankings 33 years 4 months 
andreitarkovsky tarkovskys films include andrei rublev solaris the mirror and stalker he directed the first five of his seven feature films in the soviet union his last two films were produced in italy and sweden respectively they are characterized by spirituality and metaphysical themes long takes lack of conventional dramatic structure and plot and distinctively authored use of cinematography ingmar bergman said of him  tarkovsky for me is the greatest director the one who invented a new language true to the nature of film as it captures life as a reflection life as a dream tarkovsky was born in the village of zavrazhye in ivanovo oblast the son of poet and translator arseny alexandrovich tarkovsky native of kirovohrad ukraine and maria ivanova vishnyakova a graduate of the maxim gorky literature institute tarkovsky spent his childhood in yuryevets he was described by childhood friends as active and popular having many friends and being typically in the center of action  in 1937 his father left the family subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941  tarkovsky stayed with his mother moving with her and his sister marina to moscow where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press  in 1939 tarkovsky enrolled at the moscow school  554  during the war the three evacuated to yuryevets living with his maternal grandmother  in 1943 the family returned to moscow tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school where the poet andrey voznesensky was one of his classmates he learned the piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school the family lived on shshipok street in the zamoskvorechye district in moscow from november 1947 to spring 1948 he was in a hospital with tuberculosis  many themes of his childhood  the evacuation his mother and her two children the withdrawn father the time in the hospital  feature prominently in his film the mirror following high school graduation from 1951 to 1952 tarkovsky studied arabic at the oriental institute in moscow a branch of the academy of sciences of the ussr although he already spoke some arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the academy of science institute for nonferrous metals and gold he participated in a yearlong research expedition to the river kureikye near turukhansk in the krasnoyarsk province during this time in the taiga tarkovsky decided to study film upon return from the research expedition in 1954 tarkovsky applied at the state institute of cinematography vgik and was admitted to the filmdirectingprogram he was in the same class as irma raush whom he married in april 1957 the early khrushchev era offered unique opportunities for young film directors  before 1953 annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors  after 1953 more films were produced many of them by young directors the khrushchev thaw opened soviet society and allowed to some degree western literature films and music  this allowed tarkovsky to see films of the italian neorealists french new wave and of directors such as kurosawa buuel bergman bresson andrzej wajda whose film ashes and diamonds was a true experience for him and mizoguchi tarkovsky absorbed the idea of the auteur as a necessary condition for creativity tarkovskys teacher and mentor was mikhail romm who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors  in 1956 tarkovsky directed his first student short film the killers from a short story of ernest hemingway the short film there will be no leave today and the screenplay concentrate followed in 1958 and 1959 an important influence on tarkovsky was the film director grigori chukhrai who was teaching at the vgik impressed by the talent of his student chukhrai offered tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film clear skies tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects during his third year at the vgik tarkovsky met andrei konchalovsky they found much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared ideas on cinema and films  in 1959 they wrote the script antarctica  distant country which was later published in the moskovskij komsomolets tarkovsky submitted the script to lenfilm which was rejected they were more successful with the script the steamroller and the violin which they sold to mosfilm this film became tarkovskys diploma film earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning first prize at the new york student film festival in 1961 tarkovskys first feature film was ivans childhood in 1962  he had inherited the film from director eduard abalov who had to abort the project the film earned tarkovsky international acclaim and won the golden lion award at the venice film festival in 1962  in the same year on september 30 his first son arseny called senka in tarkovskys diaries tarkovsky was born in 1965 he directed the film andrei rublev about the life of andrei rublev the 15th century russian icon painter  andrei rublev was not immediately released after completion due to problems with soviet authorities  tarkovsky had to cut the film several times resulting in several different versions of varying lengths a version of the film was presented at the cannes film festival in 1969 and won the fipresci prize the film was officially released in the soviet union in a cut version in 1971 he divorced his wife irma raush in june 1970  in the same year he married larissa kizilova ne egorkina who had been a production assistant for the film andrei rublev they had been living together since 1965  their son andrei andreyevich tarkovsky was born in the same year on august 7 in 1972 he completed solaris an adaptation of the novel solaris by stanisaw lem he had worked on this together with screenwriter fridrikh gorenshtein as early as 1968  the film was presented at the cannes film festival and won the grand prix spcial du jury and the fipresci prize and was nominated for the palme dor  from 1973 to 1974 he shot the film the mirror a highly autobiographical film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his fathers poems  tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967 under the consecutive titles confession white day and a white white day  from the beginning the film was not well received by soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature  russian authorities placed the film in the third category which meant severe limitations on its distribution allowing it to be shown only in third class cinemas and workers clubs  few prints were made and the filmmakers received no returns  third category films also placed the filmmakers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds which could have serious effects on their future productivity  these difficulties are presumed to have made tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the soviet film industry during 1975 tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay hoffmanniana about the german writer and poet e t a hoffmann in december 1976 he directed hamlet his only stage play at the lenkom theatre in moscow the main role was played by anatoly solonitsyn who also acted in several of tarkovskys films  at the end of 1978 he also wrote the screenplay sardor together with the writer aleksandr misharin the last film tarkovsky completed in the soviet union was stalker inspired by the novel roadside picnic by the brothers arkady and boris strugatsky tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986  initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel dead mountaineers hotel and he developed a raw script  influenced by a discussion with arkady strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on roadside picnic  work on this film began in 1976  the production was mired in troubles improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots  tarkovskys relationship with cinematographer georgy rerberg deteriorated to the point where tarkovsky hired alexander knyazhinsky as a new first cinematographer  furthermore tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in april 1978 resulting in further delay the film was completed in 1979 and won the prize of the ecumenical jury at the cannes film festival in the same year tarkovsky also began the production of the film the first day russian pervyy dyen based on a script by his friend and longterm collaborator andrei konchalovsky the film was set in 18th century russia during the reign of peter the great and starred natalya bondarchuk and anatoli papanov in the main role  to get the project approved by goskino tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script leaving out several scenes that were critical of the official atheism in the soviet union after finishing shooting of roughly one half of the film the project was stopped by goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors  tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film during the summer of 1979 tarkovsky traveled to italy where he shot the documentary voyage in time together with his longtime friend tonino guerra tarkovsky returned to italy in 1980 for an extended trip during which he and tonino guerra completed the script for the film nostalghia during 1981 he traveled to the united kingdom and sweden during his trip to sweden he had considered defecting from the soviet union but ultimately decided to return because of his wife and his son tarkovsky returned to italy in 1982 to start shooting nostalghia he did not return to his home country  as mosfilm withdrew from the project he had to complete the film with financial support provided by the italian rai tarkovsky completed the film in 1983  nostalghia was presented at the cannes film festival and won the fipresci prize and the prize of the ecumenical jury tarkovsky also shared a special prize called grand prix du cinma de creation with robert bresson soviet authorities prevented the film from winning the palme dor a fact that hardened tarkovskys resolve to never work in the soviet union again  in the same year he also arranged the opera boris godunov at the royal opera house in london under the musical direction of claudio abbado he spent most of 1984 preparing the film the sacrifice at a press conference in milan on july 10 1984 he announced that he would never return to the soviet union and would remain in the west at that time his son andrei jr was still in the soviet union and not allowed to leave the country during 1985 he shot the film the sacrifice in sweden at the end of the year he was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer  in january 1986 he began treatment in paris and was joined there by his son who was finally allowed to leave the soviet union the sacrifice was presented at the cannes film festival and received the grand prix spcial du jury the fipresci prize and the prize of the ecumenical jury as tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness the prizes were collected by his son andrei jr in tarkovskys last diary entry december 15 1986 he wrote  but now i have no strength left  that is the problem the diaries are sometimes also known as martyrolog and were published posthumously in 1989 and in english in 1991 tarkovsky died in paris on december 29 1986  he was buried on january 3 1987 in the russian cemetery in saintegenevivedesbois in france the inscription on his grave stone which was created by the russian sculptor ernst neizvestny reads  to the man who saw the angel a controversy emerged in russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that tarkovsky did not die of natural causes but was assassinated by the kgb evidence for this hypothesis includes several testimonies by former kgb agents who claim that viktor chebrikov gave the order to eradicate tarkovsky to prevent what the soviet government and the kgb saw as antisoviet propaganda by tarkovsky other evidence includes several memos that surfaced after the 1991 coup and the claim by one of tarkovskys doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause as tarkovsky his wife larisa tarkovskaya and actor anatoli solonitsyn all died from the very same type of lung cancer  vladimir sharun sound designer in stalker is convinced that they were all poisoned when shooting the film near a chemical plant tarkovsky is mainly known as a director of films  during his career he directed only seven feature films and three short films during his time at the film school he also wrote several screenplays directed the play hamlet for the stage in moscow the opera boris godunov in london and directed a radio production of the short story turnabout by william faulkner he also wrote sculpting in time a book on film theory tarkovskys first feature film was ivans childhood in 1962  he then directed in the soviet union andrei rublev in 1966 solaris in 1972 the mirror in 1975 and stalker in 1979  the documentary voyage in time was produced in italy in 1982 as was nostalghia in 1983  his last film the sacrifice was produced in sweden in 1986  tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films sometimes with a cowriter  to tarkovsky a director who realizes somebody elses screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator resulting in dead and monotonous films numerous awards were bestowed on tarkovsky throughout his lifetime  at the venice film festival he was awarded the golden lion at the cannes film festival he won several times the fipresci prize the prize of the ecumenical jury and the grand prix spcial du jury he was also nominated for the palme dor two times  in 1987 the british academy of film and television arts awarded the bafta award for best foreign language film to the sacrifice under the influence of glasnost and perestroika tarkovsky was finally recognized in the soviet union in the fall of 1986 shortly before his death by a retrospective of his films in moscow after his death an entire issue of the film magazine iskusstvo kino was devoted to tarkovsky in their obituaries the film committee of the council of ministers of the ussr and the union of soviet film makers expressed their sorrow that tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile posthumously he was awarded the lenin prize in 1990 one of the highest state honors in the soviet union in 1989 the andrei tarkovsky memorial prize was established with its first recipient being the russian animator yuriy norshteyn since 1993 the moscow international film festival awards the annual andrei tarkovsky award in 1996 the andrei tarkovsky museum opened in yuryevets his childhood town a minor planet 3345 tarkovskij discovered by soviet astronomer lyudmila georgievna karachkina in 1982 has also been named after him tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries  most notable is the 1988 documentary moscow elegy by russian film director alexander sokurov sokurovs own work has been heavily influenced by tarkovsky the film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from tarkovskys films  directed by andrei tarkovsky is 1988 documentary film by michal leszczylowski an editor of the film the sacrifice film director chris marker produced the television documentary one day in the life of andrei arsenevich as an homage to andrei tarkovsky in 2000 ingmar bergman was quoted as saying  tarkovsky for me is the greatest of us all the one who invented a new language true to the nature of film as it captures life as a reflection life as a dream at the enterance to the gerasimov institute of cinematography in moscow russia there is a monument that includes statues of tarkovsky gennady shpalikov and vasily shukshin tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s a period during which soviet society opened to foreign films literature and music  this allowed tarkovsky to see films of european american and japanese directors an experience which influenced his own film making  his teacher and mentor at the film school mikhail romm allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director tarkovsky was according to shavkat abdusalmov a fellow student at the film school fascinated by japanese films he was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight  tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of haiku and its ability to create images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves in 1972 tarkovsky told film historian leonid kozlov his ten favorite films the list includes  diary of a country priest and mouchette by robert bresson winter light wild strawberries and persona by ingmar bergman nazarn by luis buuel city lights by charlie chaplin ugetsu by kenji mizoguchi seven samurai by akira kurosawa and woman in the dunes by hiroshi teshigahara among his favorite directors were buuel mizoguchi bergman bresson kurosawa michelangelo antonioni jean vigo and carl theodor dreyer with the exception of city lights the list does not contain any films of the early silent era the reason is that tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon with the early filmmaking forming only a prelude the list has also no films or directors from tarkovskys native russia although he rated soviet directors such as boris barnet sergei paradjanov and alexander dovzhenko highly although strongly opposed to commercial cinema in a famous exception tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film the terminator saying its vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art he was critical of the brutality and low acting skills but nevertheless impressed by this film tarkovskys films are characterised by metaphysical themes extremely long takes and memorable images of exceptional beauty  recurring motifs are dreams memory childhood running water accompanied by fire rain indoors reflections levitation and characters reappearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera he once said juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away relating a person to the whole world that is the meaning of cinema tarkovsky included levitation scenes into several of his films most notably solaris to him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability water clouds and reflections were used by him for its surreal beauty and photogenic value as well as its symbolism such as waves or the form of brooks or running water bells and candles are also frequent symbols   these are symbols of film sight and sound and tarkovskys film frequently has themes of self reflection tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called sculpting in time  by this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it  unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time  by using long takes and few cuts in his films he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing time lost and the relationship of one moment in time to another up to and including his film the mirror tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory  after the mirror he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by aristotle a concentrated action happening in one place within the span of a single day several of tarkovskys films have color or black and white sequences including for example andrei rublev which features an epilogue in color of religious icon paintings as well as solaris the mirror and stalker which feature monochrome and sepia sequences while otherwise being in color  in 1966 in an interview conducted shortly after finishing andrei rublev tarkovsky dismissed color film as a commercial gimmick and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color he claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time  hence in film color should be used mainly to emphasize certain moments but not all the time as this distracts the viewer  to him films in color are like moving paintings or photographs which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life 
ampere the ampere symbol  a is the si unit of electric current symbol  i and is one of the seven si base units it is named after andrmarie ampre 17751836 french mathematician and physicist considered the father of electrodynamics  in practice its name is often shortened to amp in practical terms the ampere is a measure of the amount of electric charge passing a point per unit time  around 6241  1018 electrons or one coulomb passing a given point each second constitutes one ampere ampres force law in terms of ampres force law the si unit of charge the coulomb is the quantity of electricity carried that is in general charge q is determined by steady current i flowing for a time t as q  it the ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the cgs system electromagnetic unit of current now known as the abampere the amount of current which generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart the size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the mksa system would be conveniently sized the international ampere was an early realisation of the ampere defined as the current that would deposit 0001118000 grams of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution  later more accurate measurements revealed that this current is 099985a the ampere is most accurately realised using a watt balance but is in practice maintained via ohms law from the units of electromotive force and resistance the volt and the ohm since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce the josephson junction and the quantum hall effect respectively at present techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere have a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 107 and involve realisations of the watt the ohm and the volt rather than a definition in terms of the force between two currentcarrying wires it has been proposed to define the ampere in terms of the rate of flow of elementary charges since a coulomb is approximately equal to  elementary charges one ampere is approximately equivalent to  elementary charges such as electrons moving past a boundary in one second the proposed change would define 1 a as being the current in the direction of flow of a particular number of elementary charges per second  in 2005 the international committee for weights and measures cipm agreed to study the proposed change and depending on the outcome of experiments over the next few years to formally propose the change at the 24th general conference on weights and measures cgpm in 2011 
appleinc established on april 1 1976 in cupertino california and incorporated january 3 1977 for reasons as various as its philosophy of comprehensive aesthetic design to its distinctive advertising campaigns apple has established a unique reputation in the consumer electronics industry  this includes a customer base that is devoted to the company and its brand particularly in the united states apple was established on april 1 1976 by steve jobs steve wozniak and ronald wayne to sell the apple i personal computer kit they were handbuilt by wozniak and first shown to the public at the homebrew computer club the apple i was sold as a motherboard with cpu ram and basic textualvideo chipsless than what is today considered a complete personal computer the apple i went on sale in july 1976 and was marketpriced at 66666 9 in 2010 dollars adjusted for inflationus apple was incorporated january 3 1977 without wayne who sold his share of the company back to jobs and wozniak for 800  multimillionaire mike markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of 250000 during the incorporation of apple the apple ii was introduced on april 16 1977 at the first west coast computer faire it differed from its major rivals the trs80 and commodore pet because it came with color graphics and an open architecture  while early models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices they were superseded by the introduction of a 514inch floppy disk drive and interface the disk ii the apple ii was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first killer app of the business worldthe visicalc spreadsheet program  visicalc created a business market for the apple ii and gave home users an additional reason to buy an apple iicompatibility with the office by the end of the 1970s apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line the company introduced the illfated apple iii in may 1980 in an attempt to compete with ibm and microsoft in the business and corporate computing market jobs and several apple employees including jef raskin visited xerox parc in december 1979 to see the xerox alto xerox granted apple engineers three days of access to the parc facilities in return for the option to buy 100000 shares of apple at the preipo price of 10 a share  jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a graphical user interface gui and development of a gui began for the apple lisa when apple went public it generated more capital than any ipo since ford motor company in 1956 and instantly created more millionaires about 300 than any company in history steve jobs began working on the apple lisa in 1978 but in 1982 he was pushed from the lisa team due to infighting and took over jef raskins lowcostcomputer project the macintosh a turf war broke out between lisas corporate shirts and jobs pirates over which product would ship first and save apple lisa won the race in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a gui but was a commercial failure due to its high price tag and limited software titles in 1984 apple next launched the macintosh its debut was announced by the now famous 15 million television commercial 1984  it was directed by ridley scott aired during the third quarter of super bowl xviii on january 22 1984 and is now considered a watershed event for apples success and a masterpiece the macintosh initially sold well but followup sales were not strong due to its high price and limited range of software titles the machines fortunes changed with the introduction of the laserwriter the first postscript laser printer to be offered at a reasonable price point and pagemaker an early desktop publishing package the mac was particularly powerful in this market due to its advanced graphics capabilities which were already necessarily builtin to create the intuitive macintosh gui it has been suggested that the combination of these three products was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market in 1985 a power struggle developed between jobs and ceo john sculley who had been hired two years prior the apple board of directors instructed sculley to contain jobs and limit his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products  rather than submit to sculleys direction jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at apple sculley found out that jobs had been attempting to organize a putsch and called a board meeting at which apples board of directors sided with sculley and removed jobs from his managerial duties having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky macintosh portable in 1989 apple introduced the powerbook in 1991 which established the modern form factor and ergonomic layout of the laptop computer the macintosh portable was designed to be just as powerful as a desktop macintosh but weighed 17pounds with a 12hour battery life the same year apple introduced system 7 a major upgrade to the operating system which added color to the interface and introduced new networking capabilities it remained the architectural basis for mac os until 2001 the success of the powerbook and other products led to increasing revenue following the success of the macintosh lc apple introduced the centris line a lowend quadra offering and the illfated performa line that was sold in several confusing configurations and software bundles to avoid competing with the various consumer outlets such as sears price club and walmart the primary dealers for these models the result was disastrous for apple as consumers did not understand the difference between models during this time apple experimented with a number of other failed consumer targeted products including digital cameras portable cd audio players speakers video consoles and tv appliances  enormous resources were also invested in the problemplagued newton division based on john sculleys unrealistic market forecasts  ultimately all of this proved toolittletoolate for apple as their market share and stock prices continued to slide apple saw the apple ii series as too expensive to produce while taking away sales from the low end macintosh in 1990 apple released the macintosh lc with a single expansion slot for the apple iie card to migrate apple ii users to the macintosh platform microsoft continued to gain market share with windows focusing on delivering software to cheap commodity personal computers while apple was delivering a richly engineered but expensive experience  apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response  instead they sued microsoft for using a graphical user interface similar to the apple lisa in apple computer inc v microsoft corporation the lawsuit dragged on for years before it was finally dismissed  at the same time a series of major product flops and missed deadlines sullied apples reputation and sculley was replaced by michael spindler by the early 1990s apple was developing alternative platforms to the macintosh such as the aux apple had also begun to experiment in providing a maconly online portal which they called eworld developed in collaboration with america online and designed as a macfriendly alternative to other online services such as compuserve the macintosh platform itself was becoming outdated since it was not built for multitasking and several important software routines were programmed directly into the hardware  in addition apple was facing competition from os2 and unix vendors like sun microsystems the macintosh would need to be replaced by a new platform or reworked to run on more powerful hardware in 1994 apple allied with ibm and motorola in the aim alliance the goal was to create a new computing platform the powerpc reference platform which would use ibm and motorola hardware coupled with apples software the aim alliance hoped that preps performance and apples software would leave the pc far behind thus countering microsoft the same year apple introduced the power macintosh the first of many apple computers to use ibms powerpc processor in 1996 michael spindler was replaced by gil amelio as ceo gil amelio made many changes at apple including massive layoffs  after multiple failed attempts to improve mac os first with the taligent project then later with copland and gershwin amelio chose to purchase next and its nextstep operating system bringing steve jobs back to apple as an advisor  on july 9 1997 gil amelio was ousted by the board of directors after overseeing a threeyear recordlow stock price and crippling financial losses  jobs became the interim ceo and began restructuring the companys product line at the 1997 macworld expo steve jobs announced that apple would join microsoft to release new versions of microsoft office for the macintosh and that microsoft made a 150 million investment in nonvoting apple stock on november 10 1997 apple introduced the apple store tied to a new buildtoorder manufacturing strategy on august 15 1998 apple introduced a new allinone computer reminiscent of the macintosh 128k the imac the imac design team was led by jonathan ive who would later design the ipod and the iphone the imac featured modern technology and a unique design it sold close to 800000 units in its first five months through this period apple purchased several companies to create a portfolio of professional and consumeroriented digital production software  in 1998 apple announced the purchase of macromedias final cut software signaling its expansion into the digital video editing market the following year apple released two video editing products imovie for consumers and final cut pro for professionals the latter of which has gone on to be a significant videoediting program with 800000 registered users in early 2007  in 2002 apple purchased nothing real for their advanced digital compositing application shake as well as emagic for their music productivity application logic which led to the development of their consumerlevel garageband application iphotos release the same year completed the ilife suite mac os x based on nexts openstep and bsd unix was released on march 24 2001 after several years of development  aimed at consumers and professionals alike mac os x aimed to combine the stability reliability and security of unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface  to aid users in migrating from mac os 9 the new operating system allowed the use of os 9 applications through mac os xs classic environment on may 19 2001 apple opened the first official apple retail stores in virginia and california later on july 9 they bought spruce technologies a dvd authoring company the same year apple introduced the ipod portable digital audio player the product was phenomenally successful over 100 million units were sold within six years  in 2003 apples itunes store was introduced offering online music downloads for 099 a song and integration with the ipod the service quickly became the market leader in online music services with over 5 billion downloads by june 19 2008 since 2001 apples design team has progressively abandoned the use of translucent colored plastics first used in the imac g3 this began with the titanium powerbook and was followed by the white polycarbonate ibook and the flatpanel imac at the worldwide developers conference keynote address on june 6 2005 steve jobs announced that apple would begin producing intelbased mac computers in 2006  on january 10 2006 the new macbook pro and imac became the first apple computers to use intels core duo cpu by august 7 2006 apple had transitioned the entire mac product line to intel chips over one year sooner than announced  on april 29 2009 the wall street journal reported that apple was building its own team of engineers to design microchips apple also introduced boot camp to help users install windows xp or windows vista on their intel macs alongside mac os x apples success during this period was evident in its stock price  between early 2003 and 2006 the price of apples stock increased more than tenfold from around 6 per share splitadjusted to over 80  in january 2006 apples market cap surpassed that of dell nine years prior dells ceo michael dell said that if he ran apple he would shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders although apples market share in computers has grown it remains far behind competitors using microsoft windows with only about 8 of desktops and laptops in the us delivering his keynote at the macworld expo on january 9 2007 jobs announced that apple computer inc would from that point on be known as apple inc because computers are no longer the singular focus of the company  this change reflects the companys shift of emphasis to mobile electronic devices from personal computers the event also saw the announcement of the iphone and the apple tv the following day apple shares hit 9780 an alltime high at that point  in may apples share price passed the 100 mark in an article posted on apples website on february 6 2007 steve jobs wrote that apple would be willing to sell music on the itunes store without drm which would allow tracks to be played on thirdparty players if record labels would agree to drop the technology  on april 2 2007 apple and emi jointly announced the removal of drm technology from emis catalog in the itunes store effective in may  other record labels followed later that year in july of the following year apple launched the app store to sell thirdparty applications for the iphone and ipod touch within a month the store sold 60 million applications and brought in 1 million daily on average with jobs speculating that the app store could become a billiondollar business for apple three months later it was announced that apple had become the thirdlargest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iphone on december 16 2008 apple announced that after over 20 years of attending macworld 2009 would be the last year apple would be attending the macworld expo and that phil schiller would deliver the 2009 keynote in lieu of the expected jobs almost exactly one month later on january 14 2009 an internal apple memo from jobs announced that he would be taking a sixmonth leave of absence until the end of june 2009 to allow him to better focus on his health and to allow the company to better focus on its products without having the rampant media speculating about his health  despite jobs absence apple recorded its best nonholiday quarter q1 fy 2009 during the recession with a revenue of 816 billion and a profit of 121 billion after years of speculation and multiple rumored leaks apple announced a large screen tabletlike media device known as the ipad on january 27 2010  the ipad runs the same touch based operating system that the iphone uses and many of the same iphone apps are compatible with the ipad  this gave the ipad a large app catalog on launch even with very little development time before the release  later that year on april 3 2010 the ipad was launched in the us and sold more than 300000 units on that day and reaching 500000 by the end of the first week  in may 2010 apples market cap exceeded that of competitor microsoft for the first time since 1989 in june 2010 apple released the fourth generation iphone which introduced video calling multitasking and a new uninsulated stainless steel design which acts as the phones antenna  because of this antenna implementation some iphone 4 users reported a reduction in signal strength when the phone is held in specific ways  apple offered buyers a free rubber bumper case which had been proven to improve signal strength in september 2010 apple refreshed its ipod line of mp3 players introducing a multitouch ipod nano ipod touch with facetime and ipod shuffle with buttons in october 2010 apple shares hit an alltime high eclipsing 300  additionally on october 20 apple updated their macbook air laptop ilife suite of applications and unveiled mac os x lion the latest installment in their mac os x operating system  on january 6 2011 the company opened their mac app store a digital software distribution platform similar to the existing ios app store apple also sells a variety of computer accessories for mac computers including the airport wireless networking products time capsule cinema display magic mouse magic trackpad wireless keyboard the apple battery charger and the apple usb modem on january 27 2010 apple introduced their muchanticipated media tablet the ipad running a modified version of ios it offers multitouch interaction with multimedia formats including newspapers magazines ebooks textbooks photos movies tv shows videos music word processing documents spreadsheets video games and most existing iphone apps it also includes a mobile version of safari for internet browsing as well as access to the app store itunes library ibooks store contacts and notepad  content is downloadable via wifi and optional 3g service or synced through the users computer on october 23 2001 apple introduced the ipod digital music player it has evolved to include various models targeting the wants of different users the ipod is the market leader in portable music players by a significant margin with more than 220 million units shipped  apple has partnered with nike to offer the nikeipod sports kit enabling runners to synchronize and monitor their runs with itunes and the httpnikeplusnikecomnikeplus nike website  apple currently sells four variants of the ipod at the macworld conference  expo in january 2007 steve jobs revealed the long anticipated iphone a convergence of an internetenabled smartphone and ipod the original iphone combined a 25g quad band gsm and edge cellular phone with features found in hand held devices running scaleddown versions of apples mac os x dubbed ios formerly iphone os with various mac os x applications such as safari and mail it also includes webbased and dashboard apps such as google maps and weather the iphone features a convert35 touch screen display 4 8 or 16gb of memory bluetooth and wifi both b and g  on february 5 2008 apple updated the original iphone to have 16gb of memory in addition to the 8gb and 4gb models  on june 9 2008 at wwdc 2008 steve jobs announced that the iphone 3g would be available on july 11 2008  this version added support for 3g networking assistedgps navigation and a price cut to 199 for the 8gb version and 299 for the 16gb version which was available in both black and white the new version was visually different from its predecessor in that it eliminated the flat silver back and large antenna square for a curved glossy black or white back  following complaints from many people the headphone jack was changed from a recessed jack to a flush jack to be compatible with more styles of headphones the software capabilities changed as well with the release of the new iphone came the release of apples app store the store provided applications for download that were compatible with the iphone  on april 24 2009 the app store surpassed one billion downloads  on june 8 2009 at apples annual worldwide developers conference the iphone 3gs was announced providing an incremental update to the device including faster internal components support for faster 3g speeds video recording capability and voice control  on june 7 2010 at wwdc 2010 the iphone 4 was announced which apple says is its biggest leap weve taken since the original iphone the phone includes an allnew design 960x640 display apples a4 processor used in the ipad a gyroscope for enhanced gaming 5mp camera with led flash frontfacing vga camera and facetime video calling  shortly after the release of the iphone 4 it was realized by consumers that the new iphone had reception issues  this is due to the stainless steel band around the edge of the device which also serves as the phones cellular signal and wifi antenna the current fix for this issue is a bumper case for the phone distributed for free to all iphone 4 owners subject to terms at the 2007 macworld conference jobs demonstrated the apple tv previously known as the itv a settop video device intended to bridge the sale of content from itunes with highdefinition televisions the device links up to a users tv and syncs either via wifi or a wired network with one computers itunes library and streams from an additional four the apple tv originally incorporated a 40gb hard drive for storage includes outputs for hdmi and component video and plays video at a maximum resolution of 720p  on may 31 2007 a 160 gb drive was released alongside the existing 40gb model and on january 15 2008 a software update was released which allowed media to be purchased directly from the apple tv in september 2009 apple discontinued the original 40 gb apple tv and now continues to produce and sell the 160 gb apple tv on september 1 2010 alongside the release of the new line of ipod devices for the year apple released a completely redesigned apple tv the new device is 14 the size runs quieter and replaces the need for a hard drive with media streaming from any itunes library on the network along with 8 gb of flash memory to cache media downloaded  apple with the apple tv has added another device to its portfolio that runs on its a4 processor along with the ipad and the iphone the memory included in the device is the half of the iphone 4 at 256 mb the same as the ipad iphone 3gs ipod touch 3g and ipod touch 4g  it has hdmi out as the only video out source  features include access to the itunes store to rent movies and tv shows purchasing has been discontinued streaming from internet video sources including youtube and netflix and media streaming from an itunes library  apple also reduced the price of the device to 99 apple develops its own operating system to run on macs mac os x the latest version being mac os x v106 snow leopard apple also independently develops computer software titles for its mac os x operating system  much of the software apple develops is bundled with its computers an example of this is the consumeroriented ilife software package that bundles idvd imovie iphoto itunes garageband and iweb  for presentation page layout and word processing iwork is available which includes keynote pages and numbers itunes quicktime media player safari web browser and software update are available as free downloads for both mac os x and windows apple also offers a range of professional software titles  their range of server software includes the operating system mac os x server apple remote desktop a remote systems management application webobjects java ee web application server and xsan a storage area network file system  for the professional creative market there is aperture for professional rawformat photo processing final cut studio a video production suite logic a comprehensive music toolkit and shake an advanced effects composition program apple also offers online services with mobileme formerlymac that bundles personal web pages email groups idisk backup isync and learning center online tutorials  mobileme is a subscriptionbased internet suite that capitalizes on the ability to store personal data on an online server and thereby keep all webconnected devices in sync  announced at macworld expo 2009 iworkcom allows iwork users to upload documents for sharing and collaboration apple was one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of what a corporate culture should look like in organizational hierarchy flat versus tall casual versus formal attire etc  other highly successful firms with similar cultural aspects from the same period include southwest airlines and microsoft originally the company stood in opposition to staid competitors like ibm by default thanks to the influence of its founders steve jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after apple was a fortune 500 company  by the time of the 1984 tv ad this trait had become a key way the company attempts to differentiate itself from its competitors as the company has grown and been led by a series of chief executives each with his own idea of what apple should be some of its original character has arguably been lost but apple still has a reputation for fostering individuality and excellence that reliably draws talented people into its employ especially after jobs return  to recognize the best of its employees apple created the apple fellows program awarding individuals who made extraordinary technical or leadership contributions to personal computing while at the company the apple fellowship has so far been awarded to a few individuals including bill atkinson steve capps rod holt guy kawasaki al alcorn don norman numerous employees of apple have cited that projects without jobs involvement often take longer than projects with his involvement  another presents the image of jobs wandering the hall with a flame thrower in hand asking random people do you work on mobileme while this brand loyalty is considered unusual for any product apple appears not to have gone out of its way to create it  at one time apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company but this was after the phenomenon was already firmly established  apple evangelist guy kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism something that was stumbled upon  apple has however supported the continuing existence of a network of mac user groups in most major and many minor centers of population where mac computers are available mac users would meet at the european apple expo and the san francisco macworld conference  expo trade shows where apple traditionally introduced new products each year to the industry and public until apple pulled out of both events  while the conferences continue apple does not have official representation there  mac developers in turn continue gather at the annual apple worldwide developers conference apple store openings can draw crowds of thousands with some waiting in line as much as a day before the opening or flying in from other countries for the event the new york city fifth avenue cube store had a line as long as half a mile a few mac fans took the opportunity of the setting to propose marriage the ginza opening in tokyo was estimated in the thousands with a line exceeding eight city blocks john sculley told the guardian newspaper in 1997  people talk about technology but apple was a marketing company it was the marketing company of the decade research by netratings indicate that the average apple consumer is usually more affluent and more welleducated than pc consumers the research indicated that this correlation could stem from the fact that on average apple inc products are more expensive than pc products during the macs early history apple generally refused to adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware instead creating their own  this trend was largely reversed in the late 1990s beginning with apples adoption of the pci bus in the 750085009500 power macs apple has since adopted usb agp hypertransport wifi and other industry standards in its computers and was in some cases a leader in the adoption of standards such as usb firewire is an appleoriginated standard that has seen widespread industry adoption after it was standardized as ieee 1394 ever since the first apple store opened apple has sold third party accessories  this allows for instance nikon and canon to sell their maccompatible digital cameras and camcorders inside the store  adobe one of apples oldest software partners also sells its maccompatible software as does microsoft who sells microsoft office for the mac books from john wiley  sons who publishes the for dummies series of instructional books are a notable exception however the publishers line of books were banned from apple stores in 2005 because steve jobs disagreed with their decision to publish an unauthorized jobs biography icon apple incs world corporate headquarters are located in the middle of silicon valley at 1 infinite loop cupertino california this apple campus has six buildings that total convert850000 and was built in 1993 by sobrato development cos in 2006 apple announced its intention to build a second campus on convert50 assembled from various contiguous plots the new campus also in cupertino will be about convert1 east of the current campus since the introduction of the macintosh in 1984 with the 1984 super bowl commercial to the more modern get a mac adverts apple has been recognized in the past for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for its products though its advertising has been criticized for the claims of some more recent campaigns particularly 2005 power mac ads and iphone ads in britain apples first logo wayne depicts sir isaac newton sitting under an apple tree almost immediately though this was replaced by rob janoffs rainbow apple the nowfamiliar rainbowcolored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it  janoff presented jobs with several different monochromatic themes for the bitten logo and jobs immediately took a liking to it  while jobs liked the logo he insisted it be in color to humanize the company the apple logo was designed with a bite so that it would be recognized as an apple rather than a cherry the colored stripes were conceived to make the logo more accessible and to represent the fact the monitor could reproduce images in color the logo is often erroneously referred to as a tribute to alan turing with the bite mark a reference to his method of suicide  both the designer of the logo and the company deny that there is any homage to turing in the design of the logo in 1998 with the rollout of the new imac apple discontinued the rainbow theme and began to use monochromatic themes nearly identical in shape to its previous rainbow incarnation on various products packaging and advertising an aquathemed version of the monochrome logo was used from 20012003 and a glassthemed version has been used since 2003 apples first slogan byte into an apple was coined in the late 1970s  from 19972002 apple used the slogan think different in advertising campaigns the slogan had a lasting impact on their image and revived their popularity with the media and customers and the grammar caused a bit of discussion ie think is a verb which is modified by adverbs therefore the adverb differently should be used not the adjective different  although the slogan has been retired it is still closely associated with apple apple also has slogans for specific product lines for example ithink therefore imac was used in 1998 to promote the imac and say hello to iphone has been used in iphone advertisements  hello was also used to introduce the original macintosh newton imac hello again and ipod apples product commercials gained fame for launching musicians into stardom as a result of their eyepopping graphics and catchy tunes  first the company popularized canadian singer feists 1234 song in its ad campaign greenpeace an environmental organization has confronted apple on various environmental issues including promoting a global endoflife takeback plan nonrecyclable hardware components and toxins within the iphone hardware  since 2003 they have campaigned against apple regarding their chemical policies in particular the inclusion of pvc and bfrs in their products both of which have serious negative health effects  at the 2007 macworld expo greenpeace presented a critique of apple rick hind the legislative director of greenpeaces toxics campaign said the company is getting greener but not green enough  hind commented further the macbook air has less toxic pvc plastic and less toxic bfrs but it could have zero and that would make apple an ecoleader  on may 2 2007 steve jobs released a report announcing plans to eliminate pvc and bfrs by the end of 2008  apple has since eliminated pvc and bfrs across its product range it became the first laptop maker to remove pvc and bfrs in greenpeaces guide to greener electronics that scores electronics manufacturers on their policies regarding toxic chemicals recycling and climate change apple ranked 9th out of 18 leading electronic makers in october 2010 with a score of 4910 securing the same score as in the previous version of the guide however slipping 4 places down the ranking  greenpeace criticizes for example that apple does not provide information about its management in the first edition released in august 2006 apple scored 2710 in 2010 climate counts a nonprofit organization dedicated to directing consumers toward the greenest companies gave apple a score of 52 points out of a possible 100 which puts apple in their top category striding this was an increase from may 2008 when climate counts only gave apple 11 points out of a 100 which placed the company last among electronics companies at which time climate counts also labeled apple with a stuck icon adding that apple at the time was a choice to avoid for the climate conscious consumer the environmental protection agency rates apple highest amongst producers of notebook computers and fairly well compared to producers of desktop computers and lcd displays in june 2007 apple upgraded the macbook pro replacing cold cathode fluorescent lamp ccfl backlit lcd displays with mercuryfree led backlit lcd displays and arsenicfree glass apple also offers detailed information about the emissions materials and electrical usage of each product in june 2009 apples iphone 3gs was free of pvc arsenic bfrs and had an efficient power adapter in october 2009 apple upgraded the imac and macbook replacing the cold cathode fluorescent lamp ccfl backlit lcd displays with mercuryfree led backlit lcd displays and arsenicfree glass  this means all apple computers have mercury free led backlit displays arsenicfree glass and are without pvc cables  all apple computers also have epeat gold status in 2006 the mail on sunday reported that sweatshop conditions existed in factories in china where the contract manufacturers foxconn and inventec operate the factories that produce the ipod the article stated that one complex of factories that assemble the ipod among other items for instance had over 200000 workers that lived and worked in the factory with workers regularly doing more than 60 hours of labor per week the article also reported that workers made around 100 per month were required to live on the premises and pay for rent and food from the company which generally amounted to a little over half of workers earnings immediately after the allegations apple launched an investigation and worked with their manufacturers to ensure that conditions were acceptable to apple in 2007 apple started yearly audits of all its suppliers regarding workers rights slowly raising standards and pruning suppliers that did not comply  yearly progress reports have been published since 2008  in 2010 workers in china planned to sue iphone contractors over poisoning by a cleaner used to clean lcd screens  one worker claimed that they were not informed of possible occupational illnesses 
author an author sometimes in reference to a female author authoress is broadly defined as the person who originates or gives existence to anything and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created  narrowly defined an author is the originator of any written work in copyright law there is necessarily little flexibility as to what constitutes authorship the united states copyright office defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the united states title 17 us code to authors of original works of authorship questions arise as to the application of copyright law  how does it for example apply to the complex issue of fan fiction if the media agency responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans what is the limit before legal constraints from actors music and other considerations come into play  as well how does copyright apply to fangenerated stories for books  what powers do the original authors as well as the publishers have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction in literary theory critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting  in the wake of postmodern literature critics such as roland barthes and michel foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author he quotes in his essay death of the author 1968 that it is language which speaks not the author michel foucault argues in his essay what is an author 2006 that all authors are writers but not all writers are authors he states that a private letter may have a signatoryit does not have an author expanding upon foucaults position alexander nehamas writes that foucault suggests an author  is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it not necessarily who penned the text literary critics barthes and foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work because of the complications inherent with a writers title of author they warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice  instead readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as author the publisher of a work might receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price and or a fixed amount on each book that is sold  publishers at times reduced the risk of this type of arrangement by agreeing only to pay this after a certain amount of copies had sold  in canada this practice occurred during the 1890s but was not commonplace until the 1920s the relationship between the author and the editor often the authors only liaison to the publishing company is often characterized as the site of tension  for the author to reach his or her audience the work usually must attract the attention of the editor the idea of the author as the sole meaningmaker of necessity changes to include the influences of the editor and the publisher in order to engage the audience in writing as a social act pierre bourdieus essay the field of cultural production depicts the publishing industry as a space of literary or artistic positiontakings also called the field of struggles which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field  bourdieu claims that the field of positiontakings  is not the product of coherenceseeking intention or objective consensus meaning that an industry characterized by positiontakings is not one of harmony and neutrality  in particular for the writer their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity  however it is the editor who has the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and therefore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in the struggle to define the writer  as cultural investors publishers rely on the editor position to identify a good investment in cultural capital which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions according to the studies of james curran the system of shared values among editors in britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the editors expectations removing the focus from the readeraudience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and editors and on writing as a social act  even the book review by the editors has more significance than the readerships reception good relationships between authors and editors are largely found to be the product of an awareness of writing as a social act and an effort to create a balance wherein the authority over the text is negotiated among all of the positions in the industry so that the meaning is effectively carried from the meaningmaker to the readership a standard contract for an author will usually include provision for payment in the form of an advance and royalties an advance is a lump sum paid in advance of publication an advance must be earned out before royalties are payable  and advance may be paid in two lump sums the first payment on contract signing and the second on delivery of the completed manuscript or on publication an authors contract may specify for example that they will earn 10 of the retail price of each book sold some contracts specify a scale of royalties payable for example where royalties start at 10 for the first 10000 sales but then increase to a higher percentage rate at higher sale thresholds an authors book must earn out their advance before any further royalties are paid  for example if an author is paid a modest advance of 200000 and their royalty rate is 10 of a book priced at 2000  that is 200 per book  the book will need to sell 1000 copies before any further payment will be made  publishers typically withhold payment of a percentage of royalties earned against returns in some countries authors also earn income from a government scheme such as the elr educational lending right and plr public lending right schemes in australia under these schemes authors are paid a fee for the number of copies of their books in educational andor public libraries these days many authors supplement their income from book sales with public speaking engagements school visits residencies grants and teaching positions ghostwriters technical writers and textbooks writers are typically paid in a different way usually a set fee or a per word rate rather than on a percentage of sales 
april6 please do not add nonnotable people fictional characters or people without wikipedia articles to this list  no red links please do not link multiple occurrences of the same year just link the first occurrence if there are multiple people in the same birth year put them in alphabetical order do not trust this year in history websites for accurate date information  do not link multiple occurrences of the same year just link the first occurrence do not trust this year in history websites for accurate date information  
geographyofazerbaijan the elevation changes over a relatively short distance from lowlands to highlands nearly half the country is considered mountainous  notable physical features are the gently undulating hills of the subtropical southeastern coast which are covered with tea plantations orange groves and lemon groves numerous mud volcanoes and mineral springs in the ravines of kobustan mountain near baku and coastal terrain that lies as much as twentyeight meters below sea level except for its eastern caspian shoreline and some areas bordering georgia and iran azerbaijan is ringed by mountains  to the northeast bordering russias dagestan autonomous republic is the greater caucasus range to the west bordering armenia is the lesser caucasus range  to the extreme southeast the talysh mountains form part of the border with iran the highest elevations occur in the greater caucasus where mount bazardyuzi rises 4485 meters above sea level  eight large rivers flow down from the caucasus ranges into the central kuraaras lowlands alluvial flatlands and low delta areas along the seacoast designated by the azerbaijani name for the mtkvari riverkur and its main tributary the aras the mtkvari the longest river in the caucasus region forms the delta and drains into the caspian a short distance downstream from the confluence with the aras the mingechaur reservoir with an area of 605 square kilometers that makes it the largest body of water in azerbaijan was formed by damming the kura in western azerbaijan the waters of the reservoir provide hydroelectric power and irrigation of the kuraaras plain  most of the countrys rivers are not navigable  about 15 of the land in azerbaijan is arable azerbaijan is nearly surrounded by mountains the greater caucasus range with the countrys highest elevations lies in the north along the border with russia and run southeast to the abseron peninsula on the caspian sea the countrys highest peak bazardyuze dagi rises to 4485 m in this range near the azerbaijanrussia border the lesser caucasus range with elevations up to 3500 m lies to the west along the border with armenia the talish mountains form part of the border with iran at the southeast tip of the country kobustan mountain located near baku is carved by deep ravines from which bubble mud volcanoes and mineral springs the climate varies from subtropical and humid in the southeast to subtropical and dry in central and eastern azerbaijan along the shores of the caspian sea it is temperate while the higher mountain elevations are generally cold  baku on the caspian enjoys mild weather that averages convert4 in january and convert25 in july most of azerbaijan receives little rainfall only convert152 annually on average  as a result agricultural areas require irrigation  approximately convert14500 of the land is irrigated the greatest precipitation falls in the highest elevations of the caucasus but also in the lnkran lowlands of the extreme southeast the yearly average in these areas can exceed convert1000 air and water pollution are widespread and pose great challenges to economic development  major sources of pollution include oil refineries and chemical and metallurgical industries which in the early 1990s continued to operate as inefficiently as they had in the soviet era  air quality is extremely poor in baku the center of oil refining some reports have described bakus air as the most polluted in the former soviet union and other industrial centers suffer similar problems the caspian sea including baku bay has been polluted by oil leakages and the dumping of raw or inadequately treated sewage reducing the yield of caviar and fish  in the soviet period azerbaijan was pressed to use extremely heavy applications of pesticides to improve its output of scarce subtropical crops for the rest of the soviet union the continued regular use of the pesticide ddt in the 1970s and 1980s was an egregious lapse although that chemical was officially banned in the soviet union because of its toxicity to humans  excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has caused extensive groundwater pollution and has been linked by azerbaijani scientists to birth defects and illnesses  rising water levels in the caspian sea mainly caused by natural factors exacerbated by manmade structures have reversed the decadeslong drying trend and now threaten coastal areas the average level rose 15 meters between 1978 and 1993  because of the nagornokarabakh conflict large numbers of trees were felled roads were built through pristine areas and large expanses of agricultural land were occupied by military forces like other former soviet republics azerbaijan faces a gigantic environmental cleanup complicated by the economic uncertainties left in the wake of the moscowcentered planning system the committee for the protection of the natural environment is part of the azerbaijani government but in the early 1990s it was ineffective at targeting critical applications of limited funds establishing pollution standards or monitoring compliance with environmental regulations  early in 1994 plans called for azerbaijan to participate in the international caspian sea forum sponsored by the european union eu 
abbreviation an abbreviation from latin brevis meaning short is a shortened form of a word or phrase   usually but not always it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase  for example the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr abbrv or abbrev in strict analysis abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms including initialisms with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions though all three are connoted by the term abbreviation in loose parlancep167an abbreviation is a shortening by any method a contraction is a reduction of size by the drawing together of the parts a contraction of a word is made by omitting certain letters or syllables and bringing together the first and last letters or elements an abbreviation may be made either by omitting certain portions from the interior or by cutting off a part a contraction is an abbreviation but an abbreviation is not necessarily a contraction  however normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations eg by the council of science editors abbreviations can also be used to give a different context to the world itself such as pin number wherein if the abbreviation were removed the context would be invalid abbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed in some senses actually being more common in early literacy where spelling out a whole word was often avoided initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application  by classical greece and rome the reduction of words to single letters was still normal but can default an increase in literacy has historically sometimes spawned a trend toward abbreviation the standardization of english in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation  at first abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs not only periods  for example sequences like er were replaced with  as in mast for master and exacbate for exacerbate  while this may seem trivial it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy time an example from the oxford university register 1503 in the 1830s in the united states starting with boston abbreviation became a fad  for example during the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic britain abbreviating became very trendy the use of abbreviation for the names of father of modern etymology j r r tolkien and his friend c s lewis and other members of the oxford literary group known as the inklings are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this  likewise a century earlier in boston a fad of abbreviation started that swept the united states with the globally popular term ok generally credited as a remnant of its influence after world war ii the british greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semiformal writing while the americans more readily kept such use until more recently and still maintain it more than britons the classic example considered by their american counterparts quite curious was the maintenance of the internal comma in a british organization of secret agents called the special operations executive  soe  which is not found in histories written after about 1960 but before that many britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the french form  in french the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent   m is the abbreviation for monsieur while mme is that for madame  like many other crosschannel linguistic acquisitions many britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves while the americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously over the years however the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which twoword abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not the us media tend to use periods in twoword abbreviations like united states us but not personal computer pc or television tv many british publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbonfilm ribbons since a period or comma consumed the same length of nonreusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the internet during the 1990s allowed for a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation  this was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant and text messaging  sms for instance supports message lengths of 160 characters at most using the gsm 0338 character set  this brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called textese with which 10 or more of the words in a typical sms message are abbreviated  more recently twitter a popular social network service began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits in modern english there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing the only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent and to make this easier publishers express their preferences in a style guide   questions which arise include those in the following subsections if the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital for example lev for leviticus when abbreviating words that are originally spelled with lower case letters there is no need for capitalization a period full stop is sometimes written after an abbreviated word but there are exceptions and a general lack of consensus about when this should happen  there is some confusion over the strict distinction between an abbreviation a word shortened by omission of its end part  requiring a full point or full stop or period  and a contraction a word or compound shortened by omission of a middle part  which does not need a full point or period  american english usage is less strict about this distinction and thus more likely to conclude a contraction eg jr for junior with a period in british english according to harts rules the general rule is that abbreviations terminate with a full stop period whereas contractions do not in american english the period is usually added if the abbreviation might otherwise be interpreted as a word but some american writers do not use a period here  sometimes periods are used for certain initialisms but not others a notable instance in american english is to write united states european union and united nations as us eu and un respectively a third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations both saint and street become st the us manual on uniform traffic control devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name   for example northwest blvd w jefferson and ped xing all follow this recommendation acronyms that were originally capitalized with or without periods but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods   examples are sonar radar lidar laser snafu and scuba spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase so one almost never encounters us when an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence use only one period the capital of the united states is washington dc to form the plural of an abbreviation a number or a capital letter used as a noun simply add a lowercase s to the end to indicate the plural of the abbreviation of a unit of measure the same form is used as in the singular when an abbreviation contains more than one full point harts rules recommends to put the s after the final one however subject to any house style or consistency requirement the same plurals may be rendered less formally as according to harts rules an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects however the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes in latin and continuing to the derivative forms in european languages as well as english singleletter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for notetaking  most of these deal with writing and publishing a few longer abbreviations use this as well publications based in the us tend to follow the style guides of the chicago manual of style and the associated press the us government follows a style guide published by the us government printing office many british publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation the international system of units si defines a set of base units from which other derived units may be obtained the abbreviations or more accurately symbols using roman letters greek letters in the case of ohm and micro and other characters in the case of degrees celsius for these units are also clearly defined together with a set of prefixes for which there are also abbreviations or symbols there should never be a period after or inside a unit both 10 km and 10 km are wrong  the only correct form is 10 km only followed with a period when at the end of a sentence a period within a compound unit denotes multiplication of the base units on each side of it  ideally this period should be raised to the centre of the line but often it is not   for instance 5ms means 5 milliseconds whereas 5ms means 5 metreseconds the ms here is a compound unit formed from the product of two fundamental si units  metre and second   however the middle dot symbol  unicode u00b7 html is the preferred way to represent compound units when available eg 5ms there should always be a nonbreaking space between the number and the unit  25km is correct and 25km is incorrect  in section 533 of httpwwwbipmorgutilscommonpdfsibrochure8enpdf the international system of units si the httpwwwbipmorgenhome international bureau of weights and measures bipm states the numerical value always precedes the unit and a space is always used to separate the unit from the number  the only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree minute and second for plane angle the case of letters uppercase or lowercase has meaning in the si system and case should never be changed in a misguided attempt to follow an abbreviation style   for example 10s denotes 10siemens a unit of conductance while 10s denotes 10seconds   any unit named after a person is denoted by a symbol with an upper case first letter s pa a v n wb w but spelt out in full in lower case siemens pascal ampere volt newton weber and watt  by contrast g l m s cd ha represent gram litre metre second candela and hectare respectively the one slight exception to this rule is that the symbol for litre is allowed to be l to help avoid confusion with an upper case i or a one in some typefaces  compare l i and 1 likewise the abbreviations of the prefixes denoting powers of ten are casesensitive m milli represents a thousandth but m mega represents a million so by inadvertent changes of case one may introduce in this example an error of a factor of 1000000000  when a unit is written in full the whole unit is written in lowercase including the prefix millivolt for mv nanometre for nm gigacandela for gcd the above rules if followed ensure that the si system is always unambiguous so for instance mk denotes millikelvin mk denotes megakelvin km denotes kelvinmetre and km denotes kilometre   forms such as km and km are illformed and technically meaningless in the si system although the intended meaning might be inferred from the context a syllabic abbreviation is an abbreviation formed from usually initial syllables of several words such as interpol  international  police it is basically a variant of the acronym syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case sometimes starting with a capital letter and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in english or french the united states navy however often uses syllabic abbreviations as described below on the other hand they prevailed in germany under the nazis and in the soviet union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations  for example gestapo stands for geheime staatspolizei or secret state police  similarly comintern stands for the communist international this has caused syllabic abbreviations to have negative connotation notwithstanding that such abbreviations were used in germany even before the nazis came to power eg schupo for schutzpolizei syllabic abbreviations were also typical for the german language used in the german democratic republic eg  stasi for staatssicherheit state security the secret police or vopo for volkspolizist peoples policeman east asian languages whose writing uses chineseoriginated ideograms instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key characters from a term or phrase   for example in japanese the term for the united nations kokusai reng  is often abbreviated to kokuren  such abbreviations are called ryakugo  in japanese the syllabic abbreviation is frequently used for universities for instance bid  for bijng dxu  peking university and tdai  for tky daigaku  university of tokyo syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the us navy as it increases readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms  hence desron 6 is used in the full capital form to mean destroyer squadron 6 while comnavairlant would be commander naval air force in the atlantic 
alfonsocuarn cuarn was born in mxico city he is the son of alfredo cuarn a nuclear physicist who worked for the united nations international atomic energy agency for many years he studied philosophy at the national autonomous university of mexico unam and filmmaking at cuec centro universitario de estudios cinematogrficos a faculty of the same university there he met director carlos marcovich and cinematographer emmanuel lubezki and they made what would be his first short film vengeance is mine the controversy caused by the fact that the film was shot in english was the reason he was expelled from the film school he began working in television in mexico first as a technician and then as a director  cuarns television work led to assignments as an assistant director for several latin american film productions including gaby a true story and romero and in 1991 he landed his first bigscreen directorial assignment the film which also starred cabaret singer astrid hadad and modelactress claudia ramrez  with whom cuarn was linked between 1989 and 1993  was a big hit in mexico and was enthusiastically received around the world  director sydney pollack was so impressed with slo con tu pareja that he hired cuarn to direct an episode of fallen angels a series of neonoir stories produced for the showtime premium cable network in 1993 other directors who worked on the series included steven soderbergh jonathan kaplan peter bogdanovich and tom hanks in 1995 cuarn released his first feature film produced in the united states a little princess an adaptation of frances hodgson burnetts classic novel  cuarns next feature was also a literary adaptation a modernized version of charles dickenss great expectations starring ethan hawke gwyneth paltrow and robert de niro cuarns next project found him returning to mexico with a spanishspeaking cast to film y tu mam tambin starring gael garca bernal and diego luna it was a provocative and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive married woman in her late twenties the films open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude humor as well as the politically and socially relevant asides made the film an international hit and a major success with critics   cuarn shared an academy award nomination for best original screenplay with cowriter and brother carlos cuarn in 2003 cuarn directed the third film in the successful harry potter series harry potter and the prisoner of azkaban cuarn faced criticism from some of the more purist potter fans for his approach to the film  at the time of the movies release however author j k rowling said that it was her personal favorite from the series so far  critically the film was also better received than the first two instalments with some critics remarking that it was the first potter film to truly capture the essence of the novels  during the middle of the film cuarn can be seen making a cameo appearance as a wizard in the three broomsticks cuarns feature children of men an adaptation of the p d james novel starring clive owen julianne moore and michael caine received wide critical acclaim including three academy award nominations  cuarn himself received two nominations for his work on the film in both editing with alex rodrguez and adapted screenplay with several collaborators he created the production and distribution company esperanto films which has credits on the films duck season and pans labyrinth cuarn also directed the controversial public service announcement i am autism for autism speaks that was sharply criticized by disability rights groups for its negative portrayal of autism 
antiparticle corresponding to most kinds of particles there is an associated antiparticle with the same mass and opposite electric charge  for example the antiparticle of the electron is the positively charged antielectron or positron which is produced naturally in certain types of radioactive decay the laws of nature are very nearly symmetrical with respect to particles and antiparticles  for example an antiproton and a positron can form an antihydrogen atom which has almost exactly the same properties as a hydrogen atom a physicist whose body was made of antimatter doing experiments in a laboratory also made of antimatter using chemicals and substances made of antiparticles would find almost exactly the same results in all experiments  this leads to the question of why the formation of matter after the big bang resulted in a universe consisting almost entirely of matter rather than being a halfandhalf mixture of matter and antimatter the discovery of cp violation helped to shed light on this problem by showing that this symmetry originally thought to be perfect was only approximate particleantiparticle pairs can annihilate each other producing photons since the charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite charge is conserved  for example the antielectrons produced in natural radioactive decay quickly annihilate themselves with electrons producing pairs of gamma rays antiparticles are produced naturally in beta decay and in the interaction of cosmic rays in the earths atmosphere  because charge is conserved it is not possible to create an antiparticle without either destroying a particle of the same charge as in beta decay or creating a particle of the opposite charge the latter is seen in many processes in which both a particle and its antiparticle are created simultaneously as in particle accelerators  this is the inverse of the particleantiparticle annihilation process although particles and their antiparticles have opposite charges electrically neutral particles need not be identical to their antiparticles the neutron for example is made out of quarks the antineutron from antiquarks and they are distinguishable from one another because neutrons and antineutrons annihilate each other upon contact  however other neutral particles are their own antiparticles such as photons the hypothetical gravitons and wimps these are called majorana particles and can annihilate with themselves in 1932 soon after the prediction of positrons by paul dirac carl d anderson found that cosmicray collisions produced these particles in a cloud chamber a particle detector in which moving electrons or positrons leave behind trails as they move through the gas the electric chargetomass ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the curling of its cloudchamber track in a magnetic field  originally positrons because of the direction that their paths curled were mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction the antiproton and antineutron were found by emilio segr and owen chamberlain in 1955 at the university of california berkeley since then the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerator experiments  in recent years complete atoms of antimatter have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons collected in electromagnetic traps solutions of the dirac equation contained negative energy quantum states  as a result an electron could always radiate energy and fall into a negative energy state  even worse it could keep radiating infinite amount of energy because there were infinitely many negative energy states available  to prevent this unphysical situation from happening dirac proposed that a sea of negativeenergy electrons fills the universe already occupying all of the lower energy states so that due to the pauli exclusion principle no other electron could fall into them  sometimes however one of these negative energy particles could be lifted out of this dirac sea to become a positive energy particle but when lifted out it would leave behind a hole in the sea which would act exactly like a positive energy electron with a reversed charge  these he interpreted as the negative energy electron and attempted to identify them with protons in his 1930 paper a theory of electrons and protons dirac was aware of the problem that his picture implied an infinite negative charge for the universe  dirac tried to argue that we would perceive this as the normal state of zero charge  another difficulty was the difference in masses of the electron and the proton  dirac tried to argue that this was due to the electromagnetic interactions with the sea until hermann weyl proved that hole theory was completely symmetric between negative and positive charges  dirac also predicted a reaction electronprotonphotonphoton where an electron and a proton annihilate to give two photons  robert oppenheimer and igor tamm proved that this would cause ordinary matter to disappear too fast a year later in 1931 dirac modified his theory and postulated the positron a new particle of the same mass as the electron the discovery of this particle the next year removed the last two objections to his theory however the problem of infinite charge of the universe remains  also as we now know bosons also have antiparticles but since bosons do not obey the pauli exclusion principle only fermions do hole theory doesnt work for them a unified interpretation of antiparticles is now available in quantum field theory which solves both these problems if a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states then they can annihilate each other and produce other particles  reactions such as electronpositron photonphoton the twophoton annihilation of an electronpositron pair is an example the singlephoton annihilation of an electronpositron pair electronpositronphoton cannot occur in free space because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process  however in the coulomb field of a nucleus the translational invariance is broken and singlephoton annihilation may occur httpprolaapsorgabstractprv124i6p18511 the reverse reaction in free space without an atomic nucleus is also impossible for this reason  in quantum field theory this process is allowed only as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the uncertainty principle  this opens the way for virtual pair production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may fluctuate into a two particle state and back  these processes are important in the vacuum state and renormalization of a quantum field theory it also opens the way for neutral particle mixing through processes such as the one pictured here which is a complicated example of mass renormalization quantum states of a particle and an antiparticle can be interchanged by applying the charge conjugation c parity p and time reversal t operators if psigma n rangle  denotes the quantum state of a particle n with momentum p spin j whose component in the zdirection is  then one has one may try to quantize an electron field without mixing the annihilation and creation operators by writing so one has to introduce the charge conjugate antiparticle field with its own creation and annihilation operators satisfying the relations this approach is due to vladimir fock wendell furry and robert oppenheimer if one quantizes a real scalar field then one finds that there is only one kind of annihilation operator therefore real scalar fields describe neutral bosons  since complex scalar fields admit two different kinds of annihilation operators which are related by conjugation such fields describe charged bosons by considering the propagation of the negative energy modes of the electron field backward in time ernst stueckelberg reached a pictorial understanding of the fact that the particle and antiparticle have equal mass m and spin j but opposite charges q  this allowed him to rewrite perturbation theory precisely in the form of diagrams  richard feynman later gave an independent systematic derivation of these diagrams from a particle formalism and they are now called feynman diagrams  each line of a diagram represents a particle propagating either backward or forward in time  this technique is the most widespread method of computing amplitudes in quantum field theory today since this picture was first developed by ernst stueckelberg and acquired its modern form in feynmans work it is called the feynmanstueckelberg interpretation of antiparticles to honor both scientists 
alabaster the two kinds are distinguished from one another readily because of differences in their relative hardness the gypsum kind is so soft as to be readily scratched with a fingernail mohs hardness 15 to 2 while the calcite kind is too hard to be scratched in this way mohs hardness 3 although it does yield readily to a knife  moreover the calcite alabaster being a carbonate effervesces upon being touched with hydrochloric acid whereas the gypsum alabaster when thus treated remains practically unaffected due to the characteristic color of white alabaster the term has entered the vernacular as a metonym for white things particularly alabaster skin which means very light and quite transparent and no doubt derives from the use of alabaster for tomb effigies the origin of the word alabaster is in middle english through old french alabastre in turn derived from the latin alabaster and that from greek  alabastros or  alabastos the latter was a term used to identify a vase made of alabaster this name may derive further from the ancient egyptian word alabaste which refers to vessels of the egyptian goddess bast she was represented as a lioness and frequently depicted as such in figures placed atop these alabaster vessels other suggestions are derivation from the town of alabastron in egypt as well as an arabic etymological origin this substance the alabaster of the ancient egyptians and bible often is termed oriental alabaster since the early examples came from the far east the greek name alabastrites is said to be derived from the town of alabastron in egypt where the stone was quarried the locality probably owed its name to the mineral the origin of the mineral name is obscure the oriental alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume bottles or ointment vases called alabastra the vessel name has been suggested as a possible source of the mineral name  in egypt craftsmen used alabaster for canopic jars and various other sacred and sepulchral objects a sarcophagus sculptured in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from alabastron is in the sir john soanes museum london this was discovered by giovanni belzoni in 1817 in the tomb of seti i near thebes it was purchased by sir john soane when cut in thin sheets alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows it was used for this purpose in medieval churches especially in italy large alabaster sheets are used extensively in the contemporary cathedral of our lady of the angels which was dedicated in 2002 by the los angeles california archdiocese the cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque calcite alabaster is found as either a stalagmitic deposit from the floor and walls of limestone caverns or as a kind of travertine similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water  its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that the marble often shows on crosssection whence it is known as onyxmarble or alabasteronyx or sometimes simply as onyx the latter term should be restricted to siliceous minerals however egyptian alabaster has been worked extensively near suez and assiut many ancient quarries are found in the hills overlooking the plain of tell el amarna algerian onyxmarble has been quarried largely in the province of oran in mexico there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at la pedrara in the district of tecali near puebla onyxmarble occurs also in the district of tehuacn and at several localities in california arizona utah colorado and virginia when the term alabaster is used without any qualification it invariably means a finegrained variety of gypsum  this mineral or alabaster proper occurs in england the early use of alabaster for vessels dedicated for use in the cult of the deity bast in the culture of the ancient egyptians is well documented however thousands of gypsum alabaster artifacts dating to the late 4th millennium bc also have been found in tell brak present day nagar in syria in mesopotamia a gypsum alabaster sculpture believed to represent the deity abu dates to the first half of the 3rd millennium bc gypsum alabaster is a common mineral which occurs in england in the keuper marls of the midlands especially at chellaston in derbyshire at fauld in staffordshire and near newark in nottinghamshire deposits at all of these localities have been worked extensively  in the fifteenth century its carving into small statues and sets of relief panels for altarpieces was a valuable local industry in nottingham as well as a major english export  these were usually painted or partly painted it was also used for the effigies often life size on tomb monuments as the typical recumbent position suited the materials lack of strength and it was cheaper and easier to work than good marble   beside examples of these carvings still in britain especially at the nottingham castle museum british museum and victoria and albert museum trade in mineral alabaster rather than just the antiques trade has scattered examples in the material that may be found as far afield as the muse de cluny spain and scandinavia alabaster also is found although in smaller quantity at watchet in somerset near penarth in glamorganshire and elsewhere  in cumbria it occurs largely in the new red rocks but at a lower geological horizon the alabaster of nottinghamshire and derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or floors in spheroidal masses known as balls or bowls and in smaller lenticular masses termed cakes  at chellaston where the local alabaster is known as patrick it has been worked into ornaments under the name of derbyshire spar  a term more properly applied to fluorspar in europe the centre of the alabaster trade today is florence italy tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone interstratified with marls of miocene and pliocene age the mineral is worked largely by means of underground galleries in the district of volterra several varieties are recognized  veined spotted clouded agatiform and others the finest kind obtained principally from castellina is sent to florence for figuresculpture while the common kinds are carved locally into vases lights and various ornamental objects  these items are objects of extensive trade especially in florence pisa and livorno spain and many other countries have deposits which have been worked alabaster caverns state park near freedom oklahoma is home to a natural gypsum cave in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster  there are several types of alabaster found at the site including pink white and the rare black alabaster the finer kinds of alabaster are employed largely as an ornamental stone especially for ecclesiastical decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls  its softness enables it to be carved readily into elaborate forms but its solubility in water renders it unsuitable for outdoor work if alabaster with a smooth polished surface is washed with washingup liquid it will become rough dull and whiter loosing most of its translucency and lustre the purest alabaster is a snowwhite material of fine tiniforni grain but it often is associated with an oxide of iron which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone the coarser varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster of paris whence they sometimes are known as plaster stone in order to diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble the statues are immersed in a bath of water and heated gradually  nearly to the boilingpoint  an operation requiring great care for if the temperature is not regulated carefully the stone acquires a deadwhite chalky appearance the effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum if properly treated it very closely resembles true marble and is known as marmo di castellina sulphate of lime gypsum also was used by the ancients it was employed for instance in assyrian sculpture  so some of the ancient alabaster is identical to the modern stone alabaster may be stained to disguise it by being heated in various pigmentary solutions  in this way a very misleading imitation of coral has been produced that is called alabaster coral 
lfheimr the eddic poem grmnisml describes twelve divine dwellings beginning in stanza5 with a hall for himself hath set and lfheim the gods   to frey once gave as a toothgift in ancient times a toothgift was a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth in the 12th century eddic prose gylfaginning snorri sturluson relates it as the first of a series of abodes in heaven the account later in speaking of a hall called giml and the southernmost end of heaven that shall survive when heaven and earth have died explains it is not indicated whether these heavens are identical to lfheim or distinct some texts read vindblin vindblinn windblue instead of vdblin modern commentators speculate or sometimes state as fact that lfheim was one of the nine worlds heima mentioned in stanza2 of the eddic poem vlusp in several scots and in northern middle english folkoric ballads lfheim was known in as elphame or elfhame in later english publications it has been called alfheim elfland or elfenland the fairy queen is often called the queen of elphame in ballads such as that of thomas the rhymer that name does not belong to me i am but the queen of fair elphame come out to hunt in my follie allison peirson was burned as a witch in 1588 for conversing with the queen of elfame and for prescribing magic charms and potions   byre hills fife scotland on 8 november 1576 midwife bessie dunlop resident in dalry scotland was accused of sorcery and witchcraft she answered her accusers that she received tuition from thomas reid a former barony officer who had died at the battle of pinkie some 30 years before and also from the queen of the elfhame which lay nearby it resulted in a conviction and she was burnt at the stake in 1576 elfhame or elfland is portrayed in a variety of ways in these ballads and stories most commonly as mystical and benevolent but also at times as sinister and wicked the mysteriousness of the land and its otherworldly powers are a source of scepticism and distrust in many tales  examples of journeys to the realm include thomas the rhymer and the fairy tale childe rowland the latter being a particularly negative view of the land the 20thcentury fantasy writer j r r tolkien anglicized lfheim as elvenhome or eldamar in the speech of the elves in his stories eldamar lies in a coastal region of the undying lands in the uttermost west the high king of the elves in the west was ingw an echo of the name yngvi often found as a name for frey whose abode was in lfheim according to the grmnisml 
agakhani the imam hasan ali shah was born in 1804 in kahak iran to shah khalil allah the 45th ismaili imam and bibi sarkara the daughter of muhammad sadiq mahallati d 1815 a poet and a nimat allahi sufi shah khalil allah moved to yazd in 1815 probably out of concern for his indian followers who used to travel to persia to see their imam and for whom yazd was a much closer and safer destination than kahak meanwhile his wife and children continued to live in kahak off the revenues obtained from the family holdings in the mahallat maallt region  two years later in 1817 shah khalil allah was killed during a conflict between some of his followers and local shopkeepers he was succeeded by his eldest son hasan ali shah also known as muhammad hasan who became the 46th imam unfortunately the family was left unprovided for after a conflict between the local nizaris and imani khan farahani who had been married to one of the late imams daughters shah bibi and who had been in charge of the imams land holdings soon after the accession of muhammad shah qajar to his grandfather fath ali shah the imam hasan ali shah was appointed governor of kirman in 1835 prior to leaving mahallat hasan ali shah equipped himself with letters appointing him to the governorship of kirman accompanied by his brothers nephews and other relatives as well as many followers he left for yazd where he intended to meet some of his local followers  hasan ali shah sent the documents reinstating him to the position of governor of kirman to bahman mirza baha aldawla the governor of yazd bahman mirza offered hasan ali shah lodging in the city but hasan ali shah declined indicating that he wished to visit his followers living around yazd hajji mirza aqasi sent a messenger to bahman mirza to inform him of the spuriousness of hasan ali shahs documents and a battle between bahman mrz and hasan ali shah broke out in which bahman mirza was defeated  other minor battles were won by hasan ali shah before he arrived in shahri babak which he intended to use as his base for capturing kirman at the time of his arrival in shahri babak a formal local governor was engaged in a campaign to drive out the afghans from the citys citadel and hasan ali shah joined him in forcing the afghans to surrender soon after march 1841 hasan ali shah set out for kirman he managed to defeat a government force consisting of 4000 men near dashtab and continued to win a number of victories before stopping at bam for a time  soon a government force of 24000 men forced hasan ali shah to flee from bam to rigan on the border of baluchistan where he suffered a decisive defeat  hasan ali shah decided to escape to afghanistan accompanied by his brothers and many soldiers and servants after arriving in afghanistan in 1841 hasan ali shah proceeded to kandahar which had been occupied by an angloindian army in 1839  a close relationship developed between hasan ali shah and the british which coincided with the final years of the first angloafghan war 18381842  after his arrival hasan ali shah wrote to sir william macnaghten discussing his plans to seize and govern harat on behalf of the british although the proposal seemed to have been approved the plans of the british were thwarted by the uprising of dost muhammads son muhammad akbar khan who defeated the britishindian garrison on its retreat from kabul in january 1842  the uprising spread to kandahar where the afghans were in active hunt of the infidel hasan ali shah hasan ali shah managed to escape and helped to evacuate the british forces from kandahar in july 1842  the afghans in kandahar claimed that they would not rest until they had captured the traitor of the ahl ul beit hasan ali shah soon proceeded to sind where he rendered further services to the british the british were able to annex sind and for his services hasan ali shah received an annual pension of 2000 from general charles napier the british conqueror of sind with whom he had a good relationship hasan ali shah also aided the british militarily and diplomatically in their attempts to subjugate baluchistan he became the target of a baluchi raid likely in retaliation for his helping the british and to whom they considered a traitor and a kufar or infidel however hasan ali shah continued to aid the british hoping that they would arrange for his safe return to his ancestral lands in persia where many members of his family remained in october 1844 hasan ali shah left sind for bombay passing through cutch and kathiawar where he spent some time visiting the communities of his followers in the area  after arriving in bombay in february 1846 the persian government demanded his extradition from india the british refused and only agreed to transfer hasan ali shahs residence to calcutta where it would be more difficult for him to launch new attacks against the persian government the british also negotiated the safe return of hasan ali shah to persia which was in accordance with his own wish the government agreed to hasan ali shahs return provided that he would avoid passing through baluchistan and kirman and that he was to settle peacefully in mahallat hasan ali shah was eventually forced to leave for calcutta in april 1847 where he remained until he received news of the death of muhammad shah qajar hasan ali shah left for bombay and the british attempted to obtain permission for his return to persia although some of his lands were restored to the control of his relatives his safe return could not be arranged and hasan ali shah was forced to remain a permanent resident of india while in india hasan ali shah continued his close relationship with the british and was even visited by the prince of wales when the future king edward vii was on a state visit to india the british came to address hasan ali shah as his highness hasan ali shah received protection from the british government in british india as the spiritual head of an important muslim community the vast majority of his khoja ismaili followers in india welcomed him warmly but some dissident members sensing their loss of prestige with the arrival of the imam wished to maintain control over communal properties   because of this hasan ali shah decided to secure a pledge of loyalty from the members of the community to himself and to the ismaili form of islam although most of the members of the community signed a document issued by hasan ali shah summarizing the practices of the ismailis a group of dissenting khojas surprisingly asserted that the community had always been sunni this group was outcast by the unanimous vote of all the khojas assembled in bombay in 1866 these dissenters filed a suit in the bombay high court against hasan ali shah claiming that the khojas had been sunni muslims from the very beginning the case commonly referred to as the aga khan case was heard by sir joseph arnould the hearing lasted several weeks and included testimony from hasan ali shah himself  after reviewing the history of the community justice arnould gave a definitive and detailed judgement against the plaintiffs and in favour of hasan ali shah and other defendants the judgement was significant in that it legally established the status of the khojas as a community referred to as shia imami ismailis and of hasan ali shah as the spiritual head of that community  hasan ali shahs authority thereafter was not seriously challenged again hasan ali shah spent his final years in bombay with occasional visits to pune maintaining the traditions of the iranian nobility to which he belonged he kept excellent stables and became a wellknown figure at the bombay racecourse  hasan ali shah died after an imamate of sixtyfour years in april 1881  he was buried in a specially built shrine at hasanabad in the mazagaon area of bombay he was survived by three sons and five daughters  hasan ali shah was succeeded as imam by his eldest son aqa ali shah who became aga khan ii 
alexanderiiiofrussia in disposition he bore little resemblance to his softhearted liberal father and still less to his refined philosophic sentimental chivalrous yet cunning granduncle alexander i who coveted the title of the first gentleman of europe although an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet he was seen as lacking refinement and elegance  indeed he rather relished the idea of being of the same rough texture as the great majority of his subjects his straightforward abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness while his direct unadorned method of expressing himself harmonized well with his roughhewn immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements  his education was not such as to soften these peculiarities he was also noted for his immense physical strength though the large boil on the left side of his nose caused him to be severely mocked by his contemporaries hence why he always sat for photographs and portraits with the right side of his face most prominent perhaps an account from the memoirs of the artist alexander benois best describes an impression of alexander iii though he was destined to be one of the great counterreforming tsars during the first twenty years of his life alexander had little prospect of succeeding to the throne because he had an elder brother nicholas who seemed of robust constitution even when this elder brother first showed symptoms of delicate health the notion that he might die young was never seriously taken nicholas was betrothed to the princess dagmar of denmark under these circumstances the greatest solicitude was devoted to the education of nicholas as tsarevich whereas alexander received only the perfunctory and inadequate training of an ordinary grand duke of that period which did not go much beyond secondary instruction with practical acquaintance in french english and german and a certain amount of military drill alexander became heir apparent with the sudden death of his elder brother in 1865 it was then that he began to study the principles of law and administration under konstantin pobedonostsev then a professor of civil law at moscow state university and later from 1880 chief procurator of the holy synod pobedonostsev awakened in his pupil very little love of abstract studies or prolonged intellectual exertion but he did influence the character of alexanders reign by instilling into the young mans mind the belief that zeal for russian orthodox thought was an essential factor of russian patriotism and that this was to be specially cultivated by every rightminded tsar on his deathbed alexanders elder brother nicholas is said to have expressed the wish that his affianced bride princess dagmar of denmark should marry his successor this wish was swiftly realized when on  in the imperial chapel of the winter palace in st petersburg alexander wed the princess of denmark the union proved a most happy one and remained unclouded to the end  unlike that of his parents there was no adultery in the marriage during those years when he was heirapparent1865 to 1881alexander did not play a prominent part in public affairs but he allowed it to become known that he had certain ideas of his own which did not coincide with the principles of the existing government alexander deprecated what he considered undue foreign influence in general and german influence in particular so the adoption of genuine national principles was off in all spheres of official activity with a view to realizing his ideal of a homogeneous russiahomogeneous in language administration and religion  with such ideas and aspirations he could hardly remain permanently in cordial agreement with his father who though a good patriot according to his lights had strong german sympathies often used the german language in his private relations occasionally ridiculed the exaggerations and eccentricities of the slavophiles and based his foreign policy on the prussian alliance the antagonism first appeared publicly during the francoprussian war when the tsar supported the cabinet of berlin and the tsarevich did not conceal his sympathies for the french it reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 18751879 when the eastern question produced so much excitement in all ranks of russian society at first the tsarevich was more slavophile than the government but his phlegmatic nature preserved him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by others and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may have imbibed were soon dispelled by personal observation in bulgaria where he commanded the left wing of the invading army never consulted on political questions he confined himself to his military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive manner  after many mistakes and disappointments the army reached constantinople and the treaty of san stefano was signed but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the congress of berlin bismarck failed to do what was confidently expected of him by the russian tsar in return for the russian support which had enabled him to create the german empire  it was thought that he would help russia to solve the eastern question in accordance with her own interests but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of saint petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of honest broker at the congress and shortly afterwards he ostentatiously contracted an alliance with austria for the express purpose of counteracting russian designs in eastern europe the tsarevich could point to these results as confirming the views he had expressed during the francoprussian war and he drew from them the practical conclusion that for russia the best thing to do was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion and to prepare for future contingencies by a radical scheme of military and naval reorganization  in accordance with this conviction he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced alexander iii engaged in antisemitic policies such as tightening restrictions on where jews could live in the pale of settlement and restricting the occupations that jews could attain the pogroms of 1881 occurred at the beginning of alexander iiis reign  antisemitic policies under both alexander iii and his successor nicholas ii encouraged the jewish emigration to the united states from 1880 on the administration of alexander iii enacted the may laws in 1882 that imposed harsh conditions on the jews as a people for the alleged role of some jews in the assassination of alexander ii during the campaign in bulgaria he had found by painful experience that grave disorders and gross corruption existed in the military administration and after his return to saint petersburg he had discovered that similar abuses existed in the naval department  for these abuses several highplaced personagesamong others two of the granddukeswere believed to be responsible and he called his fathers attention to the subject  his representations were not favourably received  alexander ii had lost much of the reforming zeal that distinguished the first decade of his reign and had no longer the energy required to undertake the task suggested to him the consequence was that the relations between father and son became more strained the latter must have felt that there would be no important reforms until he himself succeeded to the direction of affairs  that change was much nearer at hand than was commonly supposed  on  13 march 1881 alexander ii was assassinated by a band of nihilists narodnaya volya peoples will and the autocratic power passed to the hands of his son in the last years of his reign alexander ii had been very concerned by the spread of nihilist doctrines and the increasing number of anarchist conspiracies and for some time he had hesitated between strengthening the hand of the executive and making concessions to the widespread political aspirations of the educated classes  finally he decided in favour of the latter course and on the very day of his death he signed an ukaz creating a number of consultative commissions that might easily have been transformed into an assembly of notables following the advice of his political mentor konstantin pobedonostsev alexander iii determined to adopt the opposite policy he at once canceled the ukaz before it was published and in the manifesto announcing his accession to the throne he let it be very clearly understood that he had no intention of limiting or weakening the autocratic power that he had inherited from his ancestors  nor did he afterwards show any inclination to change his mind all the internal reforms that he initiated were intended to correct what he considered as the tooliberal tendencies of the previous reign so that he left behind him the reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde type  in his opinion russia was to be saved from anarchical disorders and revolutionary agitation not by the parliamentary institutions and socalled liberalism of western europe but by the three principles that the elder generation of the slavophils systematically recommendednationality eastern orthodoxy and autocracy  his political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality one language one religion and one form of administration and he did his utmost to prepare for the realization of this ideal by imposing the russian language and russian schools on his german polish and other nonrussian subjects with the exception of the finns by fostering eastern orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions by persecuting the jews and by destroying the remnants of german polish and swedish institutions in the outlying provinces  these policies were implemented by may laws that banned jews from rural areas and shtetls even within the pale of settlement in the other provinces he sought to counteract what he considered the excessive liberalism of his fathers reign  for this purpose he removed what little power was wielded by the zemstvo an elective local administration resembling the county and parish councils in england and placed the autonomous administration of the peasant communes under the supervision of landed proprietors appointed by the government  these came to be known as land captains who were much feared and resented amongst the peasant communities throughout russia at the same time he sought to strengthen and centralize the imperial administration and to bring it more under his personal control in foreign affairs he was emphatically a man of peace but not at all a partisan of the doctrine of peace at any price and he followed the principle that the best means of averting war is to be well prepared for it  though indignant at the conduct of prince bismarck towards russia he avoided an open rupture with germany and even revived for a time the three emperors alliance it was only in the last years of his reign when mikhail katkov had acquired a certain influence over him that he adopted a more hostile attitude towards the cabinet of berlin and even then he confined himself to keeping a large number of troops near the german frontier and establishing cordial relations with france with regard to bulgaria he exercised similar selfcontrol the efforts of prince alexander and afterwards of stambolov to destroy russian influence in the principality excited his indignation but he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms with encouragement from the successful assassination of his father alexander ii in 1881 the peoples will planned the murder of tsar alexander iii the plot was unsuccessful one of the conspirators captured aleksandr ulyanov was sentenced to death and hanged on 5 may 1887  alexander ulyanov was the brother of vladimir ilyich ulyanov who would later take the pseudonym vi lenin the emperor also survived the borki train disaster of 1888  at the moment of the crash the royal family was in the dining car  its roof collapsed in the crash and alexander held the remains of the roof on his shoulders as the children fled outdoors the onset of alexanders kidney failure was later linked to the blunt trauma suffered at borki in central asian affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending russian domination without provoking a conflict with the united kingdom see panjdeh incident and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand  as a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the eventful periods of russian history but it must be admitted that under his hard unsympathetic rule the country made considerable progress  emperor alexander and his danishborn wife regularly spent their summers in their langinkoski manor near kotka on the finnish coast where their children were immersed in a scandinavian lifestyle of relative modesty alexander iii became ill with nephritis in 1894 and died of this disease at the livadia palace on 1 november 1894   his remains were interred at the peter and paul fortress in saint petersburg he was succeeded by his eldest son nicholas ii of russia an equestrian statue of tsar alexander sculpted by paolo troubetzkoy once graced znamenskaya square in front of the moscow rail terminal in st petersburg it was later moved to the inner courtyard of the marble palace another memorial is located in the city of irkutsk at the angara embankment alexander iii had six children of his marriage with princess dagmar of denmark also known as marie feodorovna vladimir bures family was famous for the watchmaking for tsar alexander iii 
alyattesii for several years he continued the war against miletus begun by his father but was obliged to turn his attention towards the medes and babylonians on may 28 585 bc during the battle of halys fought  against cyaxares king of media a solar eclipse took place see also thales hostilities were suspended peace concluded and the halys fixed as the boundary between the two kingdoms alyattes drove the cimmerians see scythia from asia minor subdued the carians and took several ionian cities including smyrna colophon  smyrna was sacked and destroyed with its the inhabitants forced to move into the countryside he standardised the weight of coins 1 stater  168 grains of wheat the coins were produced using an anvil die technique and stamped with the lions head the symbol of the mermnadae he was succeeded by his son croesus his daughter aryenis of lydia was queen consort of astyages king of media his tomb still exists on the plateau between lake gygaea and the river hermus to the north of sardisa large mound of earth with a substructure of huge stones it was excavated by spiegelthal in 1854 who found that it covered a large vault of finelycut marble blocks approached by a flatroofed passage of the same stone from the south the sarcophagus and its contents had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb   all that was left were some broken alabaster vases pottery and charcoal  on the summit of the mound were large phalli of stone it is considered that the name alyattes ii is likely to be incorrect  its usage here is based on the online httplexicorientcomeo encyclopaedia of the orient though this online work provides no references its usage of alyattes ii is likely based on john lemprires 1788 classical dictionary biblioteca classica its full name being classical dictionary of proper names mentioned in ancient authors writ large with chronological table this work however also doesnt cite its sources but its sources were likely to be ancient epigraphs or later works whose usage was based on ancient epigraphs which are lists of kings on clay tablets and other media epigraphic lists however are known by historians today to be generally unreliable as historical documents  for one thing they sometimes combine kings from different regions httpwwwmetrumorggyges livio c stecchini contended for instance that gyges was the first lydian king and those before him including the earlier alyattes were kings of nearby maionia a phrygian dependency  whats more epigraphic lists are often legendary rather than annalistic including for instance the mythic hero herakles as a citys founder or peoples progenitor as they do for the lydians so another possibility is that alyattes i was a legendary rather than a historical figure the ancient historians herodotos and strabo both refer to croeusus father as alyattes and make no mention of an earlier king alyattes of lydia in their writings on lydia the same is true of modern historians archeologists and numismatists who have focused on lydia including george ma hanfmann john griffiths pedley robert w wallace koray konuk and andrew ramage likewise other newer references such as oxford classical dictionary and encyclopaedia britannica dont use alyattes ii and make no mention of an earlier lydian king named alyattes 
ambrosians only the oldest of the catholic ambrosians the fratres s ambrosii ad nemus had anything more than a very local significance  this order is known from a bull of pope gregory xi addressed to the monks of the church of st ambrose outside milan saint ambrose bishop of milan certainly did not found religious orders though he took an interest in the monastic life and watched over its beginnings in his diocese providing for the needs of a monastery outside the walls of milam as saint augustine recounts in his confessions ambrose also made successful efforts to improve the moral life of women in the milan of his time by promoting the permanent institution of virgins as also of widows  his exhortations and other interventions have survived in various writings  de virginibus de viduis de virginitate de institutione virginis de exhortatione virginitatis and de lapsu virginis consecratae  ambrose was the only father of the church to leave behind so many writings on the subject and his attentions naturally enough led to the formation of  communities which later became formal monasteries of women it is against this background that two religious orders or congregations one of men and one of women when founded in the milan area during the 13th and 15th centuries took saint ambrose as their patron and hence adopted his name the first of these groups was formed in a wood outside milan by three noble milanese alexander grivelli antonio petrasancta and albert besuzzi who were joined by others including some  priests  in 1375 pope gregory xi gave them the rule of st augustine with set of constitutions  as a canonically recognized order they took the name fratres sancti ambrosii ad nemus and adopted a habit consisting of a brown tunic scapular and hood the brethren elected a superior with the title of prior who was then instituted by the archbishop of milan the priests of the congregation undertook preaching and other tasks of the ministry but were not allowed to accept charge parishes  in the liturgy they followed the ambrosian rite various monasteries were founded on these lines but without any formal bond between them  in 1441 pope eugene iv merged them into one congregation called congregatio sancti ambrosii ad nemus made the original house the main seat and laid down a system of government whereby a general chapter met every three years elected the priors who stayed in office till the next chapter  there was a rector or superior general who was assisted by two visitors saint charles borromeo archbishop of milan successfully reformed their discipline grown lax in 1579  in 1589 pope sixtus v united to the congregation of st ambrose the monasteries of a group known as the brothers of the apostles of the poor life or  apostolini or brothers of st barnabas whose houses were in the province of genoa and in the march of ancona this was an order that had been founded by giovanni scarpa at the end of the 15th century the union  was confirmed by pope paul v in 1606 at which time the congregation added the name of st barnabas to its title adopted new constitutions divided its houses into four provinces two of them st clements and st pancrass being in rome published works have survived from the pen of ascanio tasca and michele mulozzani each of whom was superiorgeneral and of zaccaria visconti francescomaria guazzi and paolo fabulotti although various ambrosians were given the title of blessed in recognition of their holiness  antonio gonzaga of mantua filippo of fermo and gerardo of monza the order was eventually dissolved by pope innocent x in 1650 the nuns of st ambrose ambrosian sisters wore a habit of the same colour as the brothers of st ambrose conformed to their constitutions and followed the ambrosian rite but were independent in government  pope sixtus iv gave the nuns canonical status in 1474  their one monastery was on the top of monte varese near lago maggiore on the spot where their foundress the blessed catarina morigia or catherine of palanza had first led a solitary life   other early nuns were the blessed juliana of puriselli benedetta bimia and lucia alciata the nuns were esteemed by st charles borromeo another group of cloistered nuns of st ambrose also called the annunciatae italian annunziate of lombardy or sisters of st marcellina were founded in 1408 by three young women of pavia dorothea morosini eleonora contarini and veronica duodi their houses scattered throughout lombardy and venetia were united into a congregation by st pius v under the rule of st augustine with a motherhouse residence of the prioress general at pavia one of the nuns in this group was saint catharine fieschi adorno who died on september 14 1510 in some sense also ambrosians are the members of a diocesan religious society founded by st charles borromeo archbishop of milan all priests or destined to become priests they took a simple vow of obedience to their bishop the model for this was a society that already existed at brescia under the name of priests of peace in august 1578 the new society was inaugurated being entrusted with the church of the holy sepulchre and given the name of oblates of st ambrose they later received the approbation of gregory xiii st charles died in 1584  these oblates were dispersed by napoleon i in 1810 while another group called the oblates of our lady of rho escaped this fate  in 1848 they were reorganized and given the name of oblates of st charles and reassigned the house of the holy sepulchre in the course of the 19th century similar groups were founded in a number of countries including the oblates of st charles established in london by cardinal nicholas wiseman see herzoghaucks realencyklopadie i 439 
apollo7 the mission was the first manned test of the redesigned block ii apollo commandservice module it flew in earth orbit so the crew could check lifesupport propulsion and control systems  despite tension between the crew and ground controllers the mission was a technical success which gave nasa the confidence to launch apollo 8 around the moon just two months later  however the flight would prove to be the last space flight for all of its three crew members it was also the final manned launch from cape canaveral florida apollo 7 was a test flight and confidencebuilder  after the january 1967 apollo launch pad fire the apollo command module had been extensively redesigned  schirra who would be the only astronaut to fly mercury gemini and apollo missions commanded this earthorbital shakedown of the command and service modules since it was not carrying a lunar module and only needed to reach a low earth orbit apollo 7 could be launched with the saturn ib booster rather than the much larger and more powerful saturn v schirra wanted to name the apollo 7 command module phoenix the mythical bird rising from its own ashes in memory of the late apollo 1 crew but nasa management rejected the idea throughout the mercury and gemini programs mcdonnell aircraft engineer guenter wendt had been leader of the spacecraft launch pad teams with ultimate responsibility for condition of the spacecraft at launch he had come to be respected and admired by all the astronauts including schirra but since the apollo contractor had been changed from mcdonnell to north american rockwell wendt had not been pad leader for apollo 1 so adamant was schirra in his desire to have wendt back as pad leader for his apollo flight that he got his boss deke slayton to persuade north american management to hire wendt away from mcdonnell and schirra personally lobbied north americans launch operations manager to change wendts shift from midnight to day so he could be pad leader for apollo 7  so wendt remained as pad leader for the entire apollo program wendts face was the last they saw before the hatch was sealed and immediately after liftoff eisele said with a mock german accent into his radio i vonder vere guenter vendt the apollo hardware and all mission operations worked without any significant problems and the service propulsion system sps the allimportant engine that would place apollo into and out of lunar orbit made eight nearly perfect firings even though apollos larger cabin was more comfortable than geminis eleven days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts  tension with commander schirra began with the launch decision when flight managers decided to launch with a less than ideal abort option for the early part of the ascent  once in orbit the spacious cabin may have induced some crew motion sickness which had not been an issue in the earlier smaller spacecraft the crew was also unhappy with their food selections but the worst problem occurred when schirra developed a severe head cold  as a result he became irritable with requests from mission control and all three astronauts began talking back to the capcom an early example was this exchange after mission control requested that a tv camera be turned on in the spacecraft schirra youve added two burns to this flight schedule and youve added a urine water dump and we have a new vehicle up here and i can tell you at this point tv will be delayed without any further discussion until after the rendezvous capcom jack swigert roger copy schirra roger capcom 1 deke slayton apollo 7 this is capcom number 1 schirra roger capcom 1  all weve agreed to do on this is flip it  schirra with two commanders apollo 7 capcom 1  all we have agreed to on this particular pass is to flip the switch on  no other activity is associated with tv i think we are still obligated to do that schirra we do not have the equipment out we have not had an opportunity to follow setting we have not eaten at this point  at this point i have a cold i refuse to foul up our time lines this way exchanges such as this led to all three apollo 7 crew members being rejected for future missions  despite these difficulties the mission demonstrated the spaceworthiness of the apollo command and service modules which led to the decision to launch apollo 8 to the moon just two months later beyond a shakedown of the spacecraft goals for the mission included the first live television broadcast from an american spacecraft gordon cooper had broadcast slow scan television pictures from faith 7 in 1963 and testing the mock lm docking maneuver which involved rendezvous with the launch vehicles discarded upper stage referred to by schirra in the above conversation the splashdown point was 27 deg 32 min n 64 deg 04 min w convert200 ssw of bermuda and convert7 north of the recovery ship uss essex apollo 7 was the only manned apollo launch to take place from cape canaveral air force stations launch complex 34 as all subsequent apollo and skylab missions including apollosoyuz were launched from launch complex 39 at the nearby kennedy space center as of 2010 cunningham is the only surviving member of the crew  eisele died in 1987 and schirra in 2007 in october 2008 nasa administrator michael d griffin awarded the crew of apollo 7 nasas distinguished service medal in recognition of their crucial contribution to the apollo program they had been the only apollo and skylab crew not granted this award  cunningham was present to accept the medal as were representatives of his deceased crew members and other apollo astronauts including neil armstrong bill anders and alan bean former mission control flight director chris kraft who was in conflict with the crew during the mission also sent a conciliatory video message of congratulations saying  we gave you a hard time once but you certainly survived that and have done extremely well since i am frankly very proud to call you a friend the insignia for the flight showed a command and service module with its sps engine firing the trail from that fire encircling a globe and extending past the edges of the patch symbolizing the earthorbital nature of the mission the roman numeral vii appears in the south pacific ocean and the crews names appear on a wide black arc at the bottom the patch was designed by allen stevens of rockwell international in january 1969 the apollo 7 command module was displayed on a nasa float in the inauguration parade of president richard m nixon for nearly 30 years the command module was on loan renewable every two years to the national museum of science and technology in ottawa ontario along with the space suit worn by wally schirra in november 2003 the smithsonian institution in washington dc requested them back for display at their new annex at the steven f udvarhazy center currently the apollo 7 cm is on loan to the frontiers of flight museum located next to love field in dallas texas portions of the apollo 7 mission are dramatized in the miniseries from the earth to the moon episode entitled we have cleared the tower 
archimedes archimedes is generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time he used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi he also defined the spiral bearing his name formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers archimedes died during the siege of syracuse when he was killed by a roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed  cicero describes visiting the tomb of archimedes which was surmounted by a sphere inscribed within a cylinder  archimedes had proven that the sphere has two thirds of the volume and surface area of the cylinder including the bases of the latter and regarded this as the greatest of his mathematical achievements unlike his inventions the mathematical writings of archimedes were little known in antiquity  mathematicians from alexandria read and quoted him but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until c 530ad by isidore of miletus while commentaries on the works of archimedes written by eutocius in the sixth century ad opened them to wider readership for the first time the relatively few copies of archimedes written work that survived through the middle ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the renaissance while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by archimedes in the archimedes palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results archimedes was born c 287bc in the seaport city of syracuse sicily at that time a selfgoverning colony in magna graecia the date of birth is based on a statement by the byzantine greek historian john tzetzes that archimedes lived for 75 years  in the sand reckoner archimedes gives his fathers name as phidias an astronomer about whom nothing is known  plutarch wrote in his parallel lives that archimedes was related to king hiero ii the ruler of syracuse a biography of archimedes was written by his friend heracleides but this work has been lost leaving the details of his life obscure it is unknown for instance whether he ever married or had children  during his youth archimedes may have studied in alexandria egypt where conon of samos and eratosthenes of cyrene were contemporaries he referred to conon of samos as his friend while two of his works the method of mechanical theorems and the cattle problem have introductions addressed to eratosthenes archimedes died c 212bc during the second punic war when roman forces under general marcus claudius marcellus captured the city of syracuse after a twoyearlong siege  according to the popular account given by plutarch archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured a roman soldier commanded him to come and meet general marcellus but he declined saying that he had to finish working on the problem the soldier was enraged by this and killed archimedes with his sword  plutarch also gives a lesserknown account of the death of archimedes which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a roman soldier  according to this story archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments and was killed because the soldier thought that they were valuable items  general marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of archimedes as he considered him a valuable scientific asset and had ordered that he not be harmed the last words attributed to archimedes are do not disturb my circles      a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the roman soldier  this quote is often given in latin as noli turbare circulos meos but there is no reliable evidence that archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in the account given by plutarch the tomb of archimedes carried a sculpture illustrating his favorite mathematical proof consisting of a sphere and a cylinder of the same height and diameter  archimedes had proven that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two thirds that of the cylinder including its bases  in 75bc 137 years after his death the roman orator cicero was serving as quaestor in sicily he had heard stories about the tomb of archimedes but none of the locals was able to give him the location  eventually he found the tomb near the agrigentine gate in syracuse in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes  cicero had the tomb cleaned up and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription the standard versions of the life of archimedes were written long after his death by the historians of ancient rome the account of the siege of syracuse given by polybius in his universal history was written around seventy years after archimedes death and was used subsequently as a source by plutarch and livy it sheds little light on archimedes as a person and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city the most widely known anecdote about archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape  according to vitruvius a votive crown for a temple had been made for king hiero ii who had supplied the pure gold to be used and archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith  archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density while taking a bath he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in and realized that this effect could be used to determine the volume of the crown  for practical purposes water is incompressible so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume  by dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced the density of the crown could be obtained  this density would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added  archimedes then took to the streets naked so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress crying eureka greek  meaning i have found it the test was conducted successfully proving that silver had indeed been mixed in the story of the golden crown does not appear in the known works of archimedes moreover the practicality of the method it describes has been called into question due to the extreme accuracy with which one would have to measure the water displacement  archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the principle known in hydrostatics as archimedes principle which he describes in his treatise on floating bodies this principle states that a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces  using this principle it would have been possible to compare the density of the golden crown to that of solid gold by balancing the crown on a scale with a gold reference sample then immersing the apparatus in water if the crown was less dense than gold it would displace more water due to its larger volume and thus experience a greater buoyant force than the reference sample  this difference in buoyancy would cause the scale to tip accordingly  galileo considered it probable that this method is the same that archimedes followed since besides being very accurate it is based on demonstrations found by archimedes himself a large part of archimedes work in engineering arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of syracuse the greek writer athenaeus of naucratis described how king hieron ii commissioned archimedes to design a huge ship the syracusia which could be used for luxury travel carrying supplies and as a naval warship the syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity  according to athenaeus it was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations a gymnasium and a temple dedicated to the goddess aphrodite among its facilities  since a ship of this size would leak a considerable amount of water through the hull the archimedes screw was purportedly developed in order to remove the bilge water  archimedes machine was a device with a revolving screwshaped blade inside a cylinder it was turned by hand and could also be used to transfer water from a lowlying body of water into irrigation canals the archimedes screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain the archimedes screw described in roman times by vitruvius may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the hanging gardens of babylon the claw of archimedes is a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of syracuse also known as the ship shaker the claw consisted of a cranelike arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended  when the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it  there have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw and in 2005 a television documentary entitled superweapons of the ancient world built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device the 2nd century ad author lucian wrote that during the siege of syracuse c 214212bc archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire  centuries later anthemius of tralles mentions burningglasses as archimedes weapon the device sometimes called the archimedes heat ray was used to focus sunlight onto approaching ships causing them to catch fire this purported weapon has been the subject of ongoing debate about its credibility since the renaissance ren descartes rejected it as false while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to archimedes it has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship  this would have used the principle of the parabolic reflector in a manner similar to a solar furnace a test of the archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973 by the greek scientist ioannis sakkas the experiment took place at the skaramagas naval base outside athens on this occasion 70 mirrors were used each with a copper coating and a size of around five by three feet 15 by 1m the mirrors were pointed at a plywood mockup of a roman warship at a distance of around 160feet 50m  when the mirrors were focused accurately the ship burst into flames within a few seconds the plywood ship had a coating of tar paint which may have aided combustion in october 2005 a group of students from the massachusetts institute of technology carried out an experiment with 127 onefoot 30cm square mirror tiles focused on a mockup wooden ship at a range of around 100feet 30m  flames broke out on a patch of the ship but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes it was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these conditions the mit group repeated the experiment for the television show mythbusters using a wooden fishing boat in san francisco as the target  again some charring occurred along with a small amount of flame  in order to catch fire wood needs to reach its autoignition temperature which is around 300 c 570f when mythbusters broadcast the result of the san francisco experiment in january 2006 the claim was placed in the category of busted or failed because of the length of time and the ideal weather conditions required for combustion to occur it was also pointed out that since syracuse faces the sea towards the east the roman fleet would have had to attack during the morning for optimal gathering of light by the mirrors  mythbusters also pointed out that conventional weaponry such as flaming arrows or bolts from a catapult would have been a far easier way of setting a ship on fire at short distances in december 2010 mythbusters again looked at the heat ray story in a special edition featuring barack obama entitled presidents challenge several experiments were carried out including a large scale test with 500 schoolchildren aiming mirrors at a mockup of a roman sailing ship 400feet 120m away  in all of the experiments the sail failed to reach the 210 c 410f required to catch fire and the verdict was again busted the show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been blinding dazzling or distracting the crew of the ship while archimedes did not invent the lever he gave an explanation of the principle involved in his work on the equilibrium of planes earlier descriptions of the lever are found in the peripatetic school of the followers of aristotle and are sometimes attributed to archytas according to pappus of alexandria archimedes work on levers caused him to remark  give me a place to stand on and i will move the earth         plutarch describes how archimedes designed blockandtackle pulley systems allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move  archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult and with inventing the odometer during the first punic war the odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled cicero 10643bc mentions archimedes briefly in his dialogue de re publica which portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129bc  after the capture of syracuse c 212bc general marcus claudius marcellus is said to have taken back to rome two mechanisms used as aids in astronomy which showed the motion of the sun moon and five planets  cicero mentions similar mechanisms designed by thales of miletus and eudoxus of cnidus the dialogue says that marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from syracuse and donated the other to the temple of virtue in rome marcellus mechanism was demonstrated according to cicero by gaius sulpicius gallus to lucius furius philus who described it thus this is a description of a planetarium or orrery  pappus of alexandria stated that archimedes had written a manuscript now lost on the construction of these mechanisms entitled on spheremaking modern research in this area has been focused on the antikythera mechanism another device from classical antiquity that was probably designed for the same purpose  constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing  this was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times but the discovery of the antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient greeks while he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics  plutarch wrote  he placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life archimedes was able to use infinitesimals in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus  through proof by contradiction reductio ad absurdum he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy while specifying the limits within which the answer lay  this technique is known as the method of exhaustion and he employed it to approximate the value of  pi he did this by drawing a larger polygon outside a circle and a smaller polygon inside the circle  as the number of sides of the polygon increases it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle  when the polygons had 96 sides each he calculated the lengths of their sides and showed that the value of  lay between 3 approximately 31429 and 3 approximately 31408 consistent with its actual value of approximately 31416  he also proved that the area of a circle was equal to  multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle  in on the sphere and cylinder archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude  this is the archimedean property of real numbers in measurement of a circle archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between  approximately 17320261 and  approximately 17320512  the actual value is approximately 17320508 making this a very accurate estimate he introduced this result without offering any explanation of the method used to obtain it  this aspect of the work of archimedes caused john wallis to remark that he was as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results in the quadrature of the parabola archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is  times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right he expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio  if the first term in this series is the area of the triangle then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines and so on  this proof uses a variation of the series 14  116  164  1256     which sums to in the sand reckoner archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe could contain  in doing so he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted he wrote  there are some king gelo gelo ii son of hiero ii who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude and i mean by the sand not only that which exists about syracuse and the rest of sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited  to solve the problem archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad the word is from the greek  murias for the number 10000  he proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads 100 million and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion or 863 the works of archimedes were written in doric greek the dialect of ancient syracuse the written work of archimedes has not survived as well as that of euclid and seven of his treatises are known to have existed only through references made to them by other authors  pappus of alexandria mentions on spheremaking and another work on polyhedra while theon of alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the nowlost catoptrica during his lifetime archimedes made his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in alexandria the writings of archimedes were collected by the byzantine architect isidore of miletus c 530ad while commentaries on the works of archimedes written by eutocius in the sixth century ad helped to bring his work a wider audience  archimedes work was translated into arabic by thbit ibn qurra 836901ad and latin by gerard of cremona c 11141187ad  during the renaissance the editio princeps first edition was published in basel in 1544 by johann herwagen with the works of archimedes in greek and latin around the year 1586 galileo galilei invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in air and water after apparently being inspired by the work of archimedes archimedes book of lemmas or liber assumptorum is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the nature of circles the earliest known copy of the text is in arabic the scholars t l heath and marshall clagett argued that it cannot have been written by archimedes in its current form since it quotes archimedes suggesting modification by another author the lemmas may be based on an earlier work by archimedes that is now lost it has also been claimed that herons formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to archimedes however the first reliable reference to the formula is given by heron of alexandria in the 1st century ad the foremost document containing the work of archimedes is the archimedes palimpsest in 1906 the danish professor johan ludvig heiberg visited constantinople and examined a 174page goatskin parchment of prayers written in the 13th century ad he discovered that it was a palimpsest a document with text that had been written over an erased older work  palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them which was a common practice in the middle ages as vellum was expensive the older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th century ad copies of previously unknown treatises by archimedes the parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s  on october 29 1998 it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for 2 million at christies in new york the palimpsest holds seven treatises including the only surviving copy of on floating bodies in the original greek it is the only known source of the method of mechanical theorems referred to by suidas and thought to have been lost forever  stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts the palimpsest is now stored at the walters art museum in baltimore maryland where it has been subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and xray light to read the overwritten text the treatises in the archimedes palimpsest are  on the equilibrium of planes on spirals measurement of a circle on the sphere and the cylinder on floating bodies the method of mechanical theorems and stomachion there is a crater on the moon named archimedes 297 n 40 w in his honor as well as a lunar mountain range the montes archimedes 253 n 46 w the asteroid 3600 archimedes is named after him the fields medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of archimedes along with his proof concerning the sphere and the cylinder the inscription around the head of archimedes is a quote attributed to him which reads in latin transire suum pectus mundoque potiri rise above oneself and grasp the world archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by east germany 1973 greece 1983 italy 1983 nicaragua 1971 san marino 1982 and spain 1963 the exclamation of eureka attributed to archimedes is the state motto of california in this instance the word refers to the discovery of gold near sutters mill in 1848 which sparked the california gold rush a movement for civic engagement targeting universal access to health care in the us state of oregon has been named the archimedes movement headed by former oregon governor john kitzhaber 
antigen an antigen is a substancemolecule that when introduced into the body triggers the production of an antibody by the immune system which will then kill or neutralize the antigen that is recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader  these invaders can be molecules such as pollen or cells such as bacteria the term originally came from antibody generator and was a molecule that binds specifically to an antibody but the term now also refers to any molecule or molecular fragment that can be bound by a major histocompatibility complex mhc and presented to a tcell receptor  self antigens are usually tolerated by the immune system whereas nonself antigens are identified as intruders and attacked by the immune system  autoimmune disorders arise from the immune system reacting to its own antigens similarly an immunogen is a specific type of antigen an immunogen is defined as a substance that is able to provoke an adaptive immune response if injected on its own   said another way an immunogen is able to induce an immune response while an antigen is able to combine with the products of an immune response once they are made the overlapping concepts of immunogenicity and antigenicity are thereby subtly different  according to a current text book at the molecular level an antigen is characterized by its ability to be bound at the antigenbinding site of an antibody  note also that antibodies tend to discriminate between the specific molecular structures presented on the surface of the antigen as illustrated in the figure antigens are usually proteins or polysaccharides  this includes parts coats capsules cell walls flagella fimbrae and toxins of bacteria viruses and other microorganisms  lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides  nonmicrobial exogenous nonself antigens can include pollen egg white and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells  vaccines are examples of immunogenic antigens intentionally administered to induce acquired immunity in the recipient cells present their immunogenicantigens to the immune system via a histocompatibility molecule  depending on the antigen presented and the type of the histocompatibility molecule several types of immune cells can become activated in 1899 ladislas deutsch laszlo detre 18741939 named the hypothetical substances halfway between bacterial constituents and antibodies substances immunogenes ou antigenes he originally believed those substances to be precursors of antibodies just like zymogen is a precursor of zymase but by 1903 he understood that an antigen induces the production of immune bodies antibodies and wrote that the word antigen was a contraction of antisomatogen  immunkrperbildner the oxford english dictionary indicates that the logical construction should be antibodygen antigens can be classified in order of their class exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside for example by inhalation ingestion or injection the immune systems response to exogenous antigens is often subclinical  by endocytosis or phagocytosis exogenous antigens are taken into the antigenpresenting cells apcs and processed into fragments  apcs then present the fragments to t helper cells cd4 by the use of class ii histocompatibility molecules on their surface some t cells are specific for the peptidemhc complex they become activated and start to secrete cytokines  cytokines are substances that can activate cytotoxic t lymphocytes ctl antibodysecreting b cells macrophages and other particles some antigens start out as exogenous antigens and later become endogenous for example intracellular viruses intracellular antigens can be released back into circulation upon the destruction of the infected cell again endogenous antigens are antigens that have been generated within previously normal cells as a result of normal cell metabolism or because of viral or intracellular bacterial infection the fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with mhc class i molecules if activated cytotoxic cd8 t cells recognize them the t cells begin to secrete various toxins that cause the lysis or apoptosis of the infected cell  in order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting selfproteins selfreactive t cells are deleted from the repertoire as a result of tolerance also known as negative selection  endogenous antigens include xenogenic heterologous autologous and idiotypic or allogenic homologous antigens an autoantigen is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins and sometimes dna or rna that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease  these antigens should under normal conditions not be the target of the immune system but due to mainly genetic and environmental factors the normal immunological tolerance for such an antigen has been lost in these patients tumor antigens can also be on the surface of the tumor in the form of for example a mutated receptor in which case they will be recognized by b cells a native antigen is an antigen that is not yet processed by an apc to smaller parts  t cells cannot bind native antigens but require that they be processed by apcs whereas b cells can be activated by native ones 
apollo17 commander eugene cernan command module pilot ronald evans and lunar module pilot harrison schmitt launched at 1233 am  est on december 7 1972  while evans remained in lunar orbit above in the commandservice module cernan and schmitt spent just over three days on the lunar surface in the tauruslittrow valley performing three evas or moonwalks during which they collected lunar samples and deployed scientific instruments  cernan evans and schmitt returned to earth on december 19 after an approximately 12day mission apollo 17 remains the most recent manned moon landing and the most recent manned flight beyond low earth orbit it also broke several records set by previous flights including longest manned lunar landing flight longest total lunar surface extravehicular activities largest lunar sample return and longest time in lunar orbit former x15 pilot joe engle had trained extensively with cernan and evans for lunar exploration as the backup lmp on apollo 14  this came with the expectation that the entire crew would rotate up to prime crew for apollo 17 but once it became clear that this would be the last lunar flight the scientific community pressed nasa to select a scientistastronaut to land on the moon being directed by nasa administration to assign the scientistastronaut deke slayton director of flight crew operations responsible for crew assignments presented cernan with the choice of replacing engle with geologist harrison schmitt on his crew otherwise slayton would assign apollo 17 to dick gordons entire crew to include schmitt backup crew for apollo 15 from the now cancelled apollo 18  cernan opted to fly with schmitt the apollo 15 prime crew received the backup assignment since this was to be the last lunar mission and the backup crew would not rotate to another mission  however when the apollo 15 postage stamp incident became public in early 1972 the crew was reprimanded by nasa and the air force they were active duty officers  director of flight crew operations deke slayton removed them from flight status and replaced them with young and duke from the apollo 16 prime crew and roosa from the apollo 14 prime and apollo 16 backup crews  young roosa and duke were announced as backups on 23 may 1972 and began their formal training on 1 july the splashdown point was 17 52 s 166 7 w convert350 se of the samoan islands and convert65 from the recovery ship uss ticonderoga apollo 17 landed approximately 640 meters from its target point during the transit to the moon the astronauts took a famous photograph of the earth known as the blue marble which shows almost the entire continent of africa and the continent of antarctica the other lunar landing missions that photographed the earth shortly after lunar orbit insertion showed the western hemisphere the landing site for this mission was on the southeastern rim of the mare serenitatis in the southwestern montes taurus this was a dark mantle between three high steep massifs in an area known as the tauruslittrow region  premission photographs showed boulders deposited along the bases of the mountains which could provide bedrock samples the area also contained a landslide several impact craters and some dark craters which could be volcanic apollo 17 was a jclass mission the crew used a lunar rover and conducted three lunar surface excursions lasting 72 76 and 73 hours the mission returned convert1105 of samples from the moon schmitt and cernan collected a record convert109 of rocks during three moonwalks the crew roamed for convert34 through the tauruslittrow valley in their rover discovered orangecolored soil and left the most comprehensive set of instruments in the alsep on the lunar surface  their mission was the last in the apollo lunar landing missions the last 4 apollo craft were used for the three skylab missions and the astp mission in 1975 eugene cernan is to date the last man to have walked on the moon just before he returned to the lunar module for the last time he said although cernans last words before liftoff have been widely quoted as the colorful lets get this mother out of here this is not supported by the transcript and audio recordings of the lm crew voices a plaque left on the ladder of the descent stage of challenger reads the plaque shows two hemispheres of earth and the near side of the moon and bears the signatures of cernan evans schmitt and president richard m nixon like the astronauts of apollo 10 12 13 and 14 before them the apollo 17 crew were recovered in pacific waters near american samoa after splashdown the recovery operation was performed by us navy helicopter squadron hc1 with  commander edward e dahill iii as prime recovery pilot flying helicopter 001  commander dahill flew the astronauts to the nearby recovery ship uss ticonderoga they were subsequently flown from the recovery ship to the airport at tafuna where they were greeted with an enthusiastic and well practiced samoan reception before being flown on to honolulu thence to houston commander eugene cernan had taken a czechoslovak flag with him to the moon because his ancestors came from czechoslovakia later he gave it to the institute of astronomy in ondejov now czech republic the circular patch is one of the most detailed of the apollo series the official nasa press release said  the insignia is dominated by the image of apollo the greek sun god  suspended in space behind the head of apollo is an american eagle of contemporary design the red bars of the eagles wing represent the bars in the us flag the three white stars symbolize the three astronaut crewmen the background is deep blue space and within it are the moon the planet saturn and a spiral galaxy or nebula the moon is partially overlaid by the eagles wing suggesting that this is a celestial body that man has visited and in that sense conquered the thrust of the eagle and the gaze of apollo to the right and toward saturn and the galaxy is meant to imply that mans goals in space will someday include the planets and perhaps the stars the colors of the emblem are red white and blue the colors of the us flag with the addition of gold to symbolize the golden age of space flight that will begin with this apollo 17 lunar landing the apollo image used in this emblem was the profile of the apollo belvedere sculpture now in the vatican gallery in rome this emblem was designed by artist robert t mccall in collaboration with the astronauts the insignia is surrounded by a light gray band with names of the crew and the words apollo xvii the command module america is currently on display at space center houston in houston texas the ascent stage of lunar module challenger impacted the moon december 15 1972 at 0650208 ut 150 am est at the descent stage remains on the moon at the landing site portions of the apollo 17 mission are dramatized in the miniseries from the earth to the moon episode entitled le voyage dans la lune the novel tyrannosaur canyon by douglas preston opens with a depiction of the apollo 17 moonwalks using quotes taken from the official mission transcript additionally there have been fictional astronauts in film literature and television who have been described as the last man to walk on the moon implying they were crew members on apollo 17  one such character was steve austin in the television series the six million dollar man in the 1972 novel cyborg upon which the series was based austin remembers watching the earth fall away during apollo xvii in an episode of the series austin clearly states that he flew on apollo 17  another example is the character of captain tanner played by robert duvall in the science fiction film deep impact the mission patch for apollo 17 was used for the mission patch for the nasa space ship charybdis in an episode of star trek the next generation entitled the royale 
alexandergrothendieck he is noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation  indeed the increasing abstraction and formalization of pure mathematics over the 20th century is due in part to his influence  relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the learned journal circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes his influence was to a considerable extent personal he retired in 1988 and within a few years became reclusive grothendiecks early mathematical work was done in functional analysis between 1949 and 1953 working on his doctoral thesis in nancy supervised by jean dieudonn and laurent schwartz his key contributions include topological tensor products of topological vector spaces the theory of nuclear spaces as foundational for schwartz distributions and the application of lp spaces in studying linear maps between topological vector spaces  in a few years he had turned himself into a leading authority on this area of functional analysis  to the extent that dieudonn compares his impact in this field to that of banach it is however in algebraic geometry and related fields where grothendieck did his most important and influential work  from about 1955 he started to work on sheaf theory and homological algebra producing the influential thoku paper sur quelques points dalgbre homologique published in 1957 where he introduced abelian categories and applied their theory to show that sheaf cohomology can be defined as certain derived functors in this context homological methods and sheaf theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by jeanpierre serre and others after sheaves had been defined by jean leray grothendieck took them to a higher level of abstraction and turned them into a key organising principle of his theory he shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to the relative point of view pairs of varieties related by a morphism allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems the first major application was the relative version of serres theorem showing that the cohomology of  a coherent sheaf on a complete variety is finite dimensional grothendiecks theorem shows that the higher direct images of coherent sheaves under a proper map are coherent this reduces to serres theorem over a onepoint space in 1956 he applied the same thinking to the riemannroch theorem which had already recently been generalized to any dimension by hirzebruch the grothendieckriemannroch theorem was announced by grothendieck at the initial mathematische arbeitstagung in bonn in 1957  it appeared in print in a paper written by armand borel with serre this result was his first major achievement in algebraic geometry he went on to plan and execute a major foundational programme for rebuilding the foundations of algebraic geometry which were then in a state of flux and under discussion in claude chevalleys seminar he outlined his programme in his talk at the 1958 international congress of mathematicians his foundational work on algebraic geometry is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions he adapted the use of nonclosed generic points which led to the theory of schemes he also pioneered the systematic use of nilpotents  as functions these can take only the value 0 but they carry infinitesimal information in purely algebraic settings  his theory of schemes has become established as the best universal foundation for this major field because of its great expressive power as well as technical depth  in that setting one can use birational geometry techniques from number theory galois theory and commutative algebra and close analogues of the methods of algebraic topology all in an integrated way his influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics for example the contemporary theory of dmodules it also provoked adverse reactions with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems the bulk of grothendiecks published work is collected in the monumental and yet incomplete lments de gomtrie algbrique ega and sminaire de gomtrie algbrique sga the collection fondements de la gometrie algbrique fga which gathers together talks given in the sminaire bourbaki also contains important material perhaps grothendiecks deepest single accomplishment is the invention of the tale and ladic cohomology theories which explain an observation of andr weils that there is a deep connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine number theoretic properties  for example the number of solutions of an equation over a finite field reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the complex numbers  weil realized that to prove such a connection one needed a new cohomology theory but neither he nor any other expert saw how to do this until such a theory was found by grothendieck this program culminated in the proofs of the weil conjectures the last of which was settled by grothendiecks student pierre deligne in the early 1970s after grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics he wrote a retrospective assessment of his mathematical work see the external link la vision below  as his main mathematical achievements matrethmes he chose this collection of 12 topics his chronological order he wrote that the central theme of the topics above is that of topos theory while the first and last were of the least importance to him here the term yoga denotes a kind of metatheory that can be used heuristically michel raynaud writes the other terms ariadnes thread and philosophy as effective equivalents alexander grothendieck was born in berlin to anarchist parents a ukrainian father from an ultimately hassidic family alexander sascha shapiro aka tanaroff and a mother from a german protestant family johanna hanka grothendieck both of his parents had broken away from their early backgrounds in their teens  at the time of his birth grothendiecks mother was married to johannes raddatz a german journalist and his birthname was initially recorded as alexander raddatz the marriage was dissolved in 1929 and shapirotanaroff acknowledged his paternity but never married hanka grothendieck grothendieck lived with his parents until 1933 in berlin at the end of that year shapiro moved to paris and hanka followed him the next year they left grothendieck in the care of wilhelm heydorn a lutheran pastor and teacher in hamburg where he went to school  during this time his parents fought in the spanish civil war in 1939 grothendieck came to france and lived in various camps for displaced persons with his mother first at the camp de rieucros and subsequently lived for the remainder of the war in the village of le chambonsurlignon where he was sheltered and hidden in local boardinghouses or pensions  his father was sent via drancy to auschwitz where he died in 1942  while grothendieck lived in chambon he attended the collge cvenol now known as the le collgelyce cvenol international a unique secondary school founded in 1938 by local protestant pacifists and antiwar activists   many of the refugee children being hidden in chambon attended cvenol and it was at this school that grothendieck apparently first became fascinated with mathematics after the war the young grothendieck studied mathematics in france initially at the university of montpellier after three years of increasingly independent studies there he got a scholarship to go to continue his studies in paris in 1948 initially grothendieck attended henri cartans seminar at cole normale suprieure but lacked the necessary background to follow the highpowered seminar  on the advice of cartan and weil he moved to the university of nancy where he wrote his dissertation under laurent schwartz in functional analysis from 1950 to 1953  at this time he was a leading expert in the theory of topological vector spaces  by 1957 he set this subject aside in order to work in algebraic geometry and homological algebra installed at the institut des hautes tudes scientifiques ihs grothendieck attracted attention by an intense and highly productive activity of seminars de facto working groups drafting into foundational work some of the ablest french and other mathematicians of the younger generation  grothendieck himself practically ceased publication of papers through the conventional learned journal route he was however able to play a dominant role in mathematics for around a decade gathering a strong school during this time he had officially as students michel demazure who worked on sga3 on group schemes luc illusie cotangent complex michel raynaud jeanlouis verdier cofounder of the derived category theory and pierre deligne collaborators on the sga projects also included mike artin tale cohomology and nick katz monodromy theory and lefschetz pencils  jean giraud worked out torsor theory extensions of nonabelian cohomology  many others were involved alexander grothendiecks work during the golden age period at ihs established several unifying themes in algebraic geometry number theory topology category theory and complex analysis  his first preihs breakthrough in algebraic geometry was the grothendieckhirzebruchriemannroch theorem a farreaching generalisation of the hirzebruchriemannroch theorem proved algebraically in this context he also introduced ktheory  then following the programme he outlined in his talk at the 1958 international congress of mathematicians he introduced the theory of schemes developing it in detail in his lments de gomtrie algbrique ega and providing the new more flexible and general foundations for algebraic geometry that has been adopted in the field since that time he went on to introduce the tale cohomology theory of schemes providing the key tools for proving the weil conjectures as well as crystalline cohomology and algebraic de rham cohomology to complement it  closely linked to these cohomology theories he originated topos theory as a generalisation of topology relevant also in categorical logic he also provided  an algebraic definition of fundamental groups of schemes and more generally the main structures of a categorical galois theory  as a framework for his coherent duality theory he also introduced derived categories which were further developed by verdier the results of work on these and other topics were published in the ega and in less polished form in the notes of the sminaire de gomtrie algbrique sga that he directed at ihes grothendiecks political views were radical and pacifist   thus he strongly opposed both united states aggression in vietnam and soviet military expansionism he gave lectures on category theory in the forests surrounding hanoi while the city was being bombed to protest against the vietnam war the life and work of alexander grothendieck american mathematical monthly vol 113 no 9 footnote 6  he retired from scientific life around 1970 after having discovered the partly military funding of ihs see pp xii and xiii of sga1 springer lecture notes 224  he returned to academia a few years later as a professor at the university of montpellier where he stayed until his retirement in 1988  his criticisms of the scientific community and especially of several mathematics circles are also contained in a letter written in 1988 in which he states the reasons for his refusal of the crafoord prize he declined the prize on ethical grounds in an open letter to the media while the issue of military funding was perhaps the most obvious explanation for grothendiecks departure from ihs those who knew him say that the causes of the rupture ran deeper  pierre cartier a visiteur de longue dure longterm guest at the ihs wrote a piece about grothendieck for a special volume published on the occasion of the ihss fortieth anniversary the grothendieck festschrift was a threevolume collection of research papers to mark his sixtieth birthday falling in 1988 and published in 1990 in it cartier notes that as the son of an antimilitary anarchist and one who grew up among the disenfranchised grothendieck always had a deep compassion for the poor and the downtrodden  as cartier puts it grothendieck came to find buressuryvette une cage dore a golden cage  while grothendieck was at the ihs opposition to the vietnam war was heating up and cartier suggests that this also reinforced grothendiecks distaste at having become a mandarin of the scientific world  in addition after several years at the ihs grothendieck seemed to cast about for new intellectual interests  by the late 1960s he had started to become interested in scientific areas outside of mathematics  david ruelle a physicist who joined the ihs faculty in 1964 said that grothendieck came to talk to him a few times about physics  in the 1970s ruelle and the dutch mathematician floris takens produced a new model for turbulence and it was ruelle who invented the concept of a strange attractor in a dynamical system biology interested grothendieck much more than physics and he organized some seminars on biological topics after leaving the ihs grothendieck applied for a position at the collge de france but made it clear that he had no plans to continue his mathematical research the application was rejected he then went to universit de montpellier where he became increasingly estranged from the mathematical community  around this time he founded a group called survivre which was dedicated to antimilitary and ecological issues  his mathematical career for the most part ended when he left the ihs in 1984 he wrote a proposal to get a position through the centre national de la recherche scientifique the proposal entitled esquisse dun programme program sketch describes new ideas for studying the moduli space of complex curves  although grothendieck himself never published his work in this area the proposal became the inspiration for work by other mathematicians and the source of the theory of dessin denfants  esquisse dun programme while not publishing mathematical research in conventional ways during the 1980s he produced several influential manuscripts with limited distribution with both mathematical and biographical content  during that period he also released his work on bertini type theorems contained in ega 5 published by the httpwwwmathjussieufrleilagrothendieckcircleindexphp grothendieck circle in 2004 in 1983 he wrote a huge extended manuscript about 600 pages entitled pursuing stacks stimulated by correspondence with ronald brown see also httpwwwbangoracukrbrown rbrown and tim porter at university of bangor in wales and starting with a letter addressed to daniel quillen this letter and successive  parts were distributed from bangor see external links below in an informal manner as a kind of diary grothendieck explained and developed his ideas on the relationship between algebraic homotopy theory and algebraic geometry and prospects for a noncommutative theory of stacks the manuscript which is being edited for publication by g maltsiniotis later led to another of his monumental works les drivateurs written in 1991 this latter opus of about 2000 pages further developed the homotopical ideas begun in pursuing stacks much of this work anticipated the subsequent development of the motivic homotopy theory of fabien morel and v voevodsky in the mid 1990s his esquisse dun programme the 1000page autobiographical manuscript rcoltes et semailles 1986 is now available on the internet in the french original and an english translation is underway these parts of rcoltes et semailles have already been translated into russian and published in moscow some parts of rcoltes et semailles and the whole la clef des songes  have been translated into spanish grothendieck was coawarded but declined the crafoord prize with pierre deligne in 1988 in 1991 grothendieck moved to an address he did not provide to his previous contacts in the mathematical community he is now said to live in southern france or andorra and to be reclusive in january 2010 grothendieck wrote a letter to luc illusie in this declaration dintention de nonpublication he states that essentially all materials that have been published in his absence have been done without his permission he asks that none of his work should be reproduced in whole or in part and even further that libraries containing such copies of his work remove them 
ibmaix aix was the first operating system to utilize journalling file systems and has provided several other innovations in operating system design   aix was a component of the 2003 sco v ibm lawsuit in which the sco group filed a lawsuit against ibm alleging ibm contributed scos intellectual property to the linux kernel codebase the sco group who believed they were the rightful owners of the copyrights covering the unix operating system attempted to revoke ibms license to sell or distribute the aix operating system   in march 2010 a jury returned a verdict finding that novell not the sco group owns the rights to unix novell continues to grant ibms license of unix aix version 1 introduced in 1986 for the ibm 6150 rt workstation was based on unix system v releases 1 and 2   in developing aix ibm and interactive systems corporation whom ibm contracted also incorporated source code from 42 and 43 bsd unix among other variants ibm later produced aix version 3 also known as aix6000 based on system v release 3 for their ibm powerbased rs6000 platform  since 1990 aix has served as the primary operating system for the rs6000 series later renamed ibm eserver pseries then ibm system p and now ibm power systems aix version 4 introduced in 1994 added symmetric multiprocessing with the introduction of the first rs6000 smp servers and continued to evolve through the 1990s culminating with aix 433 in 1999  version 41 in a slightly modified form was also the standard operating system for the apple network server systems sold by apple computer to complement the macintosh line in the late 1990s under project monterey ibm and the santa cruz operation planned to integrate aix and unixware into a single 32bit64bit multiplatform unix with particular emphasis on running on intel ia64 itanium architecture cpus  a beta test version of aix 5l for ia64 systems was released but according to documents released in sco v ibm lawsuit less than forty licenses for the finished monterey unix were ever sold before the project was terminated in 2002  in 2003 the sco group alleged that among other infractions ibm had misappropriated licensed source code from unix system v release 4 for incorporation into aix sco subsequently withdrew ibms license to develop and distribute aix  ibm maintains that their license was irrevocable and continued to sell and support the product until the litigation was adjudicated aix 6 was announced in may 2007 and ran an open beta from june 2007 until the general availability ga of aix 61 on november 9 2007   major new features in aix 61 included full rolebased access control workload partitions which enable application mobility enhanced security addition of aes encryption type for nfs v3 and v4 and live partition mobility on the power6 hardware in april 2010 ibm published an announcement about the upcoming 71 release  support is planned to continue on power4 or later hardware generations  several new features including better scalability enhanced clustering and management capabilities are mentioned the ability to run older versions of aix as a wpar keeps the opportunity to continue using 52 where the hardware doesnt support it  ibm intends to make 71 available with an open beta program again the original aix sometimes called aixrt was developed for the ibm 6150 rt workstation by ibm in conjunction with interactive systems corporation who had previously ported unix system iii to the ibm pc for ibm as pcix  installation media consisted of eight 12m floppy disks the rt was based on the romp chip the first commercial risc chip based on a design the ibm 801 pioneered at ibm research one of the novel aspects of the rt design was the use of a microkernel called virtual resource manager vrm the keyboard mouse display disk drives and network were all controlled by a microkernel   one could hotkey from one operating system to the next using the alttab key combination  each os in turn would get possession of the keyboard mouse and display  besides aix v2 the pick os also utilized this microkernel much of the aix v2 kernel was written in the pli programming language which proved troublesome during the migration to aix v3   aix v2 included full tcpip networking as well as sna and two networking file systems  nfs licensed from sun microsystems and distributed services ds  ds had the distinction of being built on top of sna and thereby being fully compatible with ds on the ibm midrange as400 and mainframe systems   for the graphical user interfaces aix v2 came with the x10r3 and later the x10r4 and x11 versions of the x window system from mit together with the athena widget set   compilers for fortran and c were available   one of the more popular desktop applications was the pagemaker desktop publishing software in 1988 ibm announced aix370 also developed by locus computing  aix370 was ibms first attempt to offer unixlike functionality for their mainframe line specifically the system370   aix370 was released in 1990 with functional equivalence to system v release 2 and 43bsd as well as ibm enhancements   with the introduction of the esa390 architecture aix370 was replaced by aixesa in 1991 which was based on osf1 and also ran on the system390 platform   this development effort was made partly to allow ibm to compete with amdahl uts unlike aix370 aixesa ran both natively as the host operating system and as a guest under vm  aixesa while technically advanced had little commercial success partially because unix functionality was added as an option to the existing mainframe operating system mvs which became mvsesa openedition in 1999 the release of aix version 3 sometimes called aix6000 coincided with the announcement of the first ibm rs6000 models the rs6000 was unique in that it not only outperformed all other machines in integer compute performance but also beat the competition by a factor of 10 in floatingpoint performance  releases of aix version 3 also took advantage of the developments in the power architecture aix v3 innovated in several ways on the software side it was the first operating system to introduce the idea of a journalling file system jfs which allowed for fast boot times by avoiding the need to ensure the consistency of the file systems on disks see fsck on every reboot  another innovation was the introduction of shared libraries which avoided the need for an application to statically link to the libraries it used the resulting smaller binaries used less of the hardware ram to run and used less of the disk space to install  besides improving performance it was a boon to developers executable binaries could be in the 10s of kilobytes instead of a megabyte for an executable statically linked to the c library  aix v3 also ditched the microkernel of aix v2 a contentious move that resulted in v3 being somewhat more pure and containing no pl1 code than v2 other notable subsystems included as of 2007 the current release of aix runs on the rs6000 and system p bladecenter jsseries intellistation power and system i5 platforms the apple network server systems were powerpcbased systems designed by apple computer to have numerous highend features that standard apple hardware did not have including swappable hard drives redundant power supplies and external monitoring capability  these systems were more or less based on the power macintosh hardware available at the time but were designed to use aix versions 414 or 415 as their native operating system in a specialized version specific to the ans aix was only compatible with the network servers and was not ported to standard power macintosh hardware  not to be confused is aux apples earlier version of unix for 68kbased macintoshes as part of project monterey a beta test version of aix 5l was released for the ia64 itanium architecture in 2001 but this was abandoned before it became an official product due to the lack of interest in the finished project monterey system as well as the overall lack of uptake of the ia64 architecture by a skeptical marketplace which largely gravitated towards the project trillian port of linux as the primary platform os the common desktop environment cde is aixs default graphical user interface  as part of linux affinity and the free aix toolboxes for linux applications atla opensource kde and gnome desktop are also available smit is the system management interface tool for aix it allows a user to navigate a menu hierarchy of commands rather than using the command line  invocation is typically achieved with the command smit  experienced system administrators make use of the f6 function key which generates the command line that smit will invoke to complete the proposed task smit also generates a log of commands that are performed in the smitscript file the smitscript file automatically records the commands with the command flags and parameters used the smitscript file can be used as an executable shell script to rerun system configuration tasks  smit also creates the smitlog file which contains additional detailed information that can be used by programmers in extending the smit system 
arabpeople arabic the main unifying feature among arabs is a semitic language originating in arabia from there it spread to a variety of distinct peoples across most of west asia and north africa resulting in their acculturation and eventual denomination as arabs arabization a culturolinguistic shift was often though not always in conjunction with islamization a religious shift with the rise of islam in the 7th century and as the language of the quran arabic became the lingua franca of the wider mediterranean region it was in this period that arabic language and culture was widely disseminated with the early islamic expansion both through conquest and cultural contact arabic culture and language however began a more limited diffusion before the islamic age first spreading in west asia beginning in the 2nd century as arab christians such as the ghassanids lakhmids and banu judham began migrating north from arabia into the syrian desert and the levant currently as many as 71 up to 10 of arabic language speakers are arab christians with other smaller religious communities the earliest documented use of the word arab as defining a group of people dates from the 9th century bce in assyrian records which describe the inhabitants of the arabian peninsula the root of the word has many meanings in semitic languages including westsunset desert mingle merchant raven and are comprehensible with all of these having varying degrees of relevance to the emergence of the name it is also possible that some forms were metathetical from  moving around arabic  traverse and hence it is alleged nomadic arab identity is defined independently of religious identity and predates the rise of islam with historically attested arab christian kingdoms and arab jewish tribes  today however most arabs are muslim with a minority adhering to other faiths largely christianity islamized but nonarabized peoples and therefore the majority or 80 of the worlds muslim population do not form part of the arab world but instead comprise what is the geographically larger and more diverse muslim world in the modern era defining who is an arab is done on the grounds of one or more of the following three criteria the relative importance of these three factors is estimated differently by different groups and frequently disputed some combine aspects of each definition as done by habib hassan touma who defines an arab in the modern sense of the word as one who is a national of an arab state has command of the arabic language and possesses a fundamental knowledge of arab tradition that is of the manners customs and political and social systems of the culture  most people who consider themselves arab do so based on the overlap of the political and linguistic definitions few people consider themselves arab based on the political definition without also having arabic as a language  thus few kurds and berbers identify as arab although for instance some berbers also consider themselves arab see for example  gellner ernest and micaud charles eds arabs and berbers from tribe to nation in north africa lexington lexington books 1972  some religious minorities within western asia and north africa who speak arabic or any of its varieties as their primary community language such as egyptian copts and lebanese and syrian christians may not identify as arabs the arab league at its formation in 1946 defined arab as a person whose language is arabic who lives in an arabic speaking country who is in sympathy with the aspirations of the arabic speaking peoples the relation of  and  is complicated further by the notion of lost arabs  mentioned in the quran as punished for their disbelief  all contemporary arabs were considered as descended from two ancestors qahtan and adnan versteegh 1997 is uncertain whether to ascribe this distinction to the memory of a real difference of origin of the two groups but it is certain that the difference was strongly felt in early islamic times  even in islamic spain there was enmity between the qays of the northern and the kalb of the southern group the socalled himyarite language described by alhamdani died 946 appears to be a special case of language contact between the two groups an originally north arabic dialect spoken in the south and influenced by old south arabian during the muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries the arabs forged an arab empire under the rashidun and umayyads and later the abbasids whose borders touched southern france in the west china in the east asia minor in the north and the sudan in the south  this was one of the largest land empires in history  in much of this area the arabs spread islam and the arabic language the language of the quran through conversion and cultural assimilation  many groups became known as arabs through this process of arabization rather than through descent  thus over time the term arab came to carry a broader meaning than the original ethnic term cultural arab vs ethnic arab arab nationalism declares that arabs are united in a shared history culture and language a related ideology panarabism calls for all arab lands to be united as one state  arab nationalism has often competed for existence with regional nationalism in the middle east such as lebanese syrian iraqi and egyptian nationalism the table below is based on the number of arabicspeakers arabophones some of whom do not identify as arabs note that some of the persian gulf countries speak arabic exclusively and the numbers below also includes foreign guest workers there the arab diaspora is a global diaspora estimated at between 30 and 50 million people distributed across every continent and almost every country in the world  more than half of the arabic diaspora is concentrated in latin america other regions with high concentrations are western europe western asia and north america according to the international organization for migration there are 13 million firstgeneration arab migrants in the world of which 58 reside in arab countries  arab expatriates contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development  in 2009 arab countries received a total of 351 billion usd in remittance inflows and remittances sent to jordan egypt and lebanon from other arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other arab countries many scholarsdatejuly 2010 derive the entire population of mesopotamia from population movements out of jazirat alarab island of the arabs  an area between the red sea and the persian gulf with hadramawt its southern perimeter extending northward up to the area just east of the dead sea jordan early semitic peoples from the ancient near east such as the arameans akkadians and canaanites built civilizations in mesopotamia and the levant genetically they often interlapped and mixed  slowly however they lost their political domination of the near east due to internal turmoil and attacks by nonsemitic peoples  although the semites eventually lost political control of western asia to the persian empire the aramaic language remained the lingua franca of mesopotamia and the levant aramaic itself was replaced by greek as western asias prestige language following the conquest of alexander iii of macedon the first written attestation of the ethnonym arab occurs in an assyrian inscription of 853 bce where shalmaneser iii lists a king gindibu of mtu arbi arab land as among the people he defeated at the battle of karkar some of the names given in these texts are aramaic while others are the first attestations of protoarabic dialects  in fact several different ethnonyms are found in assyrian texts that are conventionally translated arab arabi arubu aribi and urbi many of the qedarite queens were also described as queens of the aribi the hebrew bible occasionally refers to arvi peoples or variants thereof translated as arab or arabian the scope of the term at that early stage is unclear but it seems to have referred to various desertdwelling semitic tribes in the syrian desert and arabia protoarabic or ancient north arabian texts give a clearer picture of the arabs emergence the earliest are written in variants of epigraphic south arabian musnad script including the 8th century bce hasaean inscriptions of eastern saudi arabia the 6th century bce lihyanite texts of southeastern saudi arabia and the thamudic texts found throughout arabia and the sinai not in reality connected with thamud the nabataeans were nomadic newcomersdateaugust 2009 who moved into territory vacated by the edomites  semites who settled the region centuries before them  their early inscriptions were in aramaic but gradually switched to arabic and since they had writing it was they who made the first inscriptions in arabic the nabataean alphabet was adopted by arabs to the south and evolved into modern arabic script around the 4th century  this is attested by safaitic inscriptions beginning in the 1st century bce and the many arabic personal names in nabataean inscriptions  from about the 2nd century bce a few inscriptions from qaryat alfaw near sulayyil reveal a dialect which is no longer considered protoarabic but preclassical arabic five syriac inscriptions mentioning arabs have been found at sumatar harabesi one of which has been dated to the 2nd century ce in sassanid times arabia petraea was a border province between the roman and persian empires and from the early centuries ad was increasingly affected by arab influence notably with the ghassanids migrating north from the 3rd century the ghassanids lakhmids and kindites were the last major migration of nonmuslims out of yemen to the north greeks and romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the near east as arabi the romans called yemen arabia felix the romans called the vassal nomadic states within the roman empire arabia petraea after the city of petra and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east arabia magna muslims of medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the araab and considered themselves sedentary but were aware of their close racial bonds the term araab mirrors the term assyrians used to describe the closely related nomads they defeated in syria the quran does not use the word  only the nisba adjective  the quran calls itself  arabic and  clear the two qualities are connected for example in ayat 4323 by the clear book we have made it an arabic recitation in order that you may understand the quran became regarded as the prime example of the  the language of the arabs the term  has the same root and refers to a particularly clear and correct mode of speech the plural noun  refers to the bedouin tribes of the desert who resisted muhammad for example in ayat 997  the bedouin are the worst in disbelief and hypocrisy based on this in early islamic terminology  referred to the language and  to the arab bedouins carrying a negative connotation due to the quranic verdict just cited but after the islamic conquest of the 8th century the language of the nomadic arabs became regarded as the most pure by the grammarians following abi ishaq and the term  language of the arabs denoted the uncontaminated language of the bedouins the arrival of islam united many tribes in arabia who then moved northwards to conquer the levant and iraq in 661 and throughout the caliphates rule by the ummayad dynasty damascus was established as the muslim capital  in these newly acquired territories arabs comprised the ruling military elite and as such enjoyed special privileges they were proud of their arab ancestry and sponsored the poetry and culture of preislamic arabia whilst diffusing with levantine and iraqi culture they established garrison towns at ramla arraqqah basra kufa mosul and samarra all of which developed into major cities caliph abd almalik established arabic as the caliphates official language in 686  this reform greatly influenced the conquered nonarab peoples and fueled the arabization of the region  however the arabs higher status among nonarab muslim converts and the latters obligation to pay heavy taxes caused resentment  caliph umar ii strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717  he rectified the situation demanding that all muslims be treated as equals but his intended reforms did not take effect as he died after only three years of rule  by now discontent with the umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the abbasids came to power and moved the capital to baghdad the abbasids were also arabs descendants of muhammads uncle abbas but unlike the ummayads they had the support of nonarab islamic groups in north africa the berbers heavily fought the arab muslims after being run down and having submitted to the arabs they helped to invade spain the main army invading spain consisted mainly of berbers and was led by the berber tariq ibn ziyad the first centuries of muslim presence in north africa and spain saw minor arab immigration into the area  spain was primarily native iberian with a significant minority of berbers while the arabs were a small and powerful elite it would not take long before both spain and large parts of the maghreb broke free from the umayyad caliphate in morocco berber tribes gave birth to several independent states the berghouata the idrisids and sijilmasa with the collapse of the umayyad state islamic spain was the scene of ethnic fighting between arabs and berbers the last surving umayyad member abd arrahman i escaped prosecution from rivals and escaped to spain being of both arab and berber descent he was able to quell the hostilities and created the emirate of cordoba it wasnt until the 11th century that the maghreb saw an influx of ethnic arabs starting with the 11th century the arab bedouin banu hilal tribes migrated to the west having been sent by the fatimids to punish the berber zirids for abandoning shiism they travelled westwards the banu hilal quickly defeated the zirids and deeply weakened the neighboring hammadids their influx was a major factor in the linguistic and cultural arabization of the maghreb and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant  cities and villages across the maghreb were attacked and destroyed  although the coastal and urban regions remained under direct control of the berber leadership the inland would become uncontrollable and subject to these bedouin  ibn khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by banu hilal invaders had become completely arid desert  although berbers would rule the region until the 16th century under such powerful dynasties as the almoravids the almohads hafsids etc the arrival of these tribes would eventually help to arabize it both linguistically and politically during the muslim conquests of the 7th and early 8th centuries rashidun armies established the caliphate or islamic empire one of the largest empires in history the islamic golden age was soon inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the abbasid caliphate and the transfer of the capital from damascus to the newly founded city baghdad the abbassids were influenced by the quranic injunctions and hadith such as the ink of the scholar is more holy than the blood of martyrs stressing the value of knowledge  during this period the muslim world became an intellectual centre for science philosophy medicine and education as the abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the house of wisdom arabic   in baghdad where both muslim and nonmuslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the worlds knowledge into arabic many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been forgotten were translated into arabic and later in turn translated into turkish persian hebrew and latin during this period the muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected synthesized and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient mesopotamian roman chinese indian persian egyptian north african greek and byzantine civilizations  rival muslim dynasties such as the fatimids of egypt and the umayyads of alandalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as cairo and crdoba rivaling baghdad in 1728 a russian officer described a group of sunni arab nomads who populated the caspian shores of mughan in presentday azerbaijan and spoke a mixed turkicarabic language it is believed that these groups migrated to the caucasus in the 16th century the 1888 edition of encyclopdia britannica also mentioned a certain number of arabs populating the baku governorate of the russian empire they retained an arabic dialect at least into the mid19th century but since then have fully assimilated with the neighbouring azeris and tats today in azerbaijan alone there are nearly 30 settlements still holding the name arab eg  arabgadim arabojaghy arabyengija etc from the time of the arab conquest of the caucasus continuous smallscale arab migration from various parts of the arabicspeaking world was observed in dagestan influencing and shaping the culture of the local peoples  up until the mid20th century there were still individuals in dagestan who claimed arabic to be their native language with the majority of them living in the village of darvag to the northwest of derbent the latest of these accounts dates to the 1930s according to the history of ibn khaldun the arabs that were once in central asia have been either killed or have fled the tatar invasion of the region leaving only the locals  however today many people in central asia identify as arabs most arabs of central asia are fully integrated into local populations and sometimes call themselves the same as locals eg  tajiks uzbeks but they use special titles to show their arabic origin such as sayyid khoja or siddiqui iranian arab communities are also found in khuzestan province medieval arab genealogists divided arabs into three groups ibn khalduns muqaddima distinguishes between sedentary muslims who used to be nomadic arabs and the bedouin nomadic arabs of the desert he used the term formerlynomadic arabs and refers to sedentary muslims by the region or city they lived in as in egyptians spaniards and yemenis the christians of italy and the crusaders preferred the term saracens for all the arabs and muslims of that time the christians of iberia used the term moor to describe all the arabs and muslims of that time arab muslims are generally sunni shia and ismaili arab christians generally follow eastern churches such as the greek orthodox and greek catholic churches and the maronite church and others how syrian orthodox and chaldean church most common in iraq the greek catholic churches and maronite church are under the pope of rome and a part of the larger worldwide catholic church there are also arab communities consisting of druze and bahais before the coming of islam most arabs followed a pagan religion with a number of deities including hubal wadd allt manat and uzza a few individuals the hanifs had apparently rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism unaffiliated with any particular religion some tribes had converted to christianity or judaism the most prominent arab christian kingdoms were the ghassanid and lakhmid kingdoms  when the himyarite king converted to judaism in the late 4th century the elites of the other prominent arab kingdom the kindites being himyirite vassals apparently also converted at least partly  with the expansion of islam polytheistic arabs were rapidly islamized and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared today sunni islam dominates in most areas overwhelmingly so in north africa shia islam is dominant in southern iraqand lebanon substantial shia populations exist in saudi arabia kuwait northern syria the albatinah region in oman and in northern yemen the druze community concentrated in lebanon the palestinian territories israel and syria many druze claim independence from other major religions in the area and consider their religion more of a philosophy their books of worship are called al hikma they believe in reincarnation and pray to five messengers from god christians make up 55 of the population of the near east in lebanon they number about 39 of the population  in syria christians make up 16 of the population  in british palestine estimates ranged as high as 25 but is now 38 due largely to the 1948 palestinian exodus  in west bank and in gaza arab christians make up 8 and 08 of the populations respectively  in iraq arab christians constitute today up 2 the number dropped after iraq war  in israel arab christians constitute 17 roughly 9 of the palestinian arab population  arab christians make up 6 of the population of jordan most north and south american arabs are christian as are about half of arabs in australia who come particularly from lebanon syria and the palestinian territories  one well known member of this religious and ethnic community is saint abo martyr and the patron saint of tbilisi georgia jews from arab countries  mainly mizrahi jews and yemenite jews  are today usually not categorised as arab sociologist philip mendes asserts that before the antijewish actions of the 1930s and 1940s overall iraqi jews viewed themselves as arabs of the jewish faith rather than as a separate race or nationality  also prior to the massive sephardic emigrations to the middle east in the 16th and 17th centuries the jewish communities of what are today syria iraq palestine lebanon egypt and yemen were known by other jewish communities as mustaarabi jews or like arabs prior to the emergence of the term mizrahi the term arab jews was sometimes used to describe jews of the arab world the term is rarely used today the few remaining jews in the arab countries reside mostly in morocco and tunisia from the late 1940s to the early 1960s following the creation of the state of israel most of these jews left or were expelled from their countries of birth and are now mostly concentrated in israel some immigrated to france where they form the largest jewish community outnumbering european jews but relatively few to the united states see jewish exodus from arab lands arab culture is an inclusive term that draws together the common themes and overtones found in the arabicspeaking cultures especially those of the middleeastern countries  this regions distinct religion art and food are some of the fundamental features that define arab culture arabic music is the music of arabicspeaking people or countries especially those centered on the arabian peninsula the world of arab music has long been dominated by cairo a cultural center though musical innovation and regional styles abound from morocco to saudi arabia beirut has in recent years also become a major center of arabic music  classical arab music is extremely popular across the population especially a small number of superstars known throughout the arab world  regional styles of popular music include algerian ra moroccan gnawa kuwaiti sawt egyptian el gil and arabesquepop music in turkey 
abioticstress whereas a biotic stress would include such living disturbances as fungi or harmful insects abiotic stress factors or stressors are naturally occurring often intangible factors such as intense sunlight or wind that may cause harm to the plants and animals in the area affected  abiotic stress is essentially unavoidable abiotic stress affects animals but plants are especially dependent on environmental factors so it is particularly constraining   abiotic stress is the most harmful factor concerning the growth and productivity of crops worldwide   research has also shown that abiotic stressors are at their most harmful when they occur together in combinations of abiotic stress factors abiotic stress comes in many forms the most common of the stressors are the easiest for people to identify but there are many other less recognizable abiotic stress factors which affect environments constantly the most basic stressors include  high winds extreme temperatures drought flood and other natural disasters such as tornados and wildfires the lesserknown stressors generally occur on a smaller scale and so are less noticeable but they include  poor edaphic conditions like rock content and ph high radiation compaction contamination and other highly specific conditions like rapid rehydration during seed germination abiotic stress as a natural part of every ecosystem will affect organisms in a variety of ways   although these effects may be either beneficial or detrimental the location of the area is crucial in determining the extent of the impact that abiotic stress will have the higher the latitude of the area affected the greater the impact of abiotic stress will be on that area   so a taiga or boreal forest is at the mercy of whatever abiotic stress factors may come along while tropical zones are much less susceptible to such stressors one example of a situation where abiotic stress plays a constructive role in an ecosystem is in natural wildfires   while they can be a human safety hazard it is productive for these ecosystems to burn out every once in a while so that new organisms can begin to grow and thrive even though it is healthy for an ecosystem a wildfire can still be considered an abiotic stressor because it puts an obvious stress on individual organisms within the area   every tree that is scorched and each bird nest that is devoured is a sign of the abiotic stress   on the larger scale though natural wildfires are positive manifestations of abiotic stress what also needs to be taken into account when looking for benefits of abiotic stress is that one phenomenon may not affect an entire ecosystem in the same way   while a flood will kill most plants living low on the ground in a certain area if there is rice there it will thrive in the wet conditions another example of this is in phytoplankton and zooplankton the same types of conditions are usually considered stressful for these two types of organisms they act very similarly when exposed to ultraviolet light and most toxins but at elevated temperatures the phytoplankton reacts negatively while the thermophilic zooplankton reacts positively to the increase in temperature the two may be living in the same environment but an increase in temperature of the area would prove stressful only for one of the organisms lastly abiotic stress has enabled species to grow develop and evolve furthering natural selection as it picks out the weakest of a group of organisms   both plants and animals have evolved mechanisms allowing them to survive extremes the most obvious detriment concerning abiotic stress involves farming it has been claimed by one study that abiotic stress causes the most crop loss of any other factor and that most major crops are reduced in their yield by more than 50 from their potential yield it has also been speculated that this yield reduction will only worsen with the dramatic climate changes expected in the future because abiotic stress is widely considered a detrimental effect the research on this branch of the issue is extensive   for more information on the harmful effects of abiotic stress see the sections below on plants and animals a plants first line of defense against abiotic stress is in its roots if the soil holding the plant is healthy and biologically diverse the plant will have a higher chance of surviving stressful conditions facilitation or the positive interactions between different species of plants is an intricate web of association in a natural environment it is how plants work together   in areas of high stress the level of facilitation is especially high as well   this could possibly be because the plants need a stronger network to survive in a harsher environment so their interactions between species such as crosspollination or mutualistic actions become more common to cope with the severity of their habitat this facilitation will not go so far as to protect an entire species however   for example cold weather crops like rye oats wheat and apples are expected to decline by about 15 in the next fifty years and strawberries will drop as much as 32 simply because of projected climate changes of a few degrees   plants are extremely sensitive to such changes and do not generally adapt quickly plants also adapt very differently from one another even from a plant living in the same area   when a group of different plant species was prompted by a variety of different stress signals such as drought or cold each plant responded uniquely   hardly any of the responses were similar even though the plants had become accustomed to exactly the same home environment for animals the most stressful of all the abiotic stressors is heat   this is because many species are unable to regulate their internal body temperature   even in the species that are able to regulate their own temperature it is not always a completely accurate system   temperature determines metabolic rates heart rates and other very important factors within the bodies of animals so an extreme temperature change can easily distress the animals body   animals can respond to extreme heat for example through natural heat acclimation or by burrowing into the ground to find a cooler space it is also possible to see in animals that a high genetic diversity is beneficial in providing resiliency against harsh abiotic stressors   this acts as a sort of stock room when a species is plagued by the perils of natural selection a variety of galling insects are among the most specialized and diverse herbivores on the planet and their extensive protections against abiotic stress factors have helped the insect in gaining that position of honor biodiversity is determined by many things and one of them is abiotic stress if an environment is highly stressful biodiversity tends to be low if abiotic stress does not have a strong presence in an area the biodiversity will be much higher 
antipopefelixii this felix was later confused with a roman martyr named felix with the result that he was included in lists of the popes as felix ii and that the succeeding popes of the same name pope felix iii and pope felix iv were given wrong numerals as was antipope felix v the catholic encyclopedia 1909 called this confusion a distortion of the true facts and suggested that it arose because the liber pontificalis which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition says that this felix built a church on the via aurelia which is where the roman martyr of an earlier date was buried  however a more recent source says that of the martyr felix nothing is known except his name that he was a martyr and that he was buried in the cemetery on the via portuensis that bears his name the catholic encyclopedia remarked that the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local roman history the status of a saint and a confessor  as such he appears in the roman martyrology on 29 july  at that time 1909 the roman martyrology had the following text  at rome on the aurelian way st felix ii pope and martyr  being expelled from his see by the arian emperor constantius for defending the catholic faith and being put to the sword privately at cera in tuscany he died gloriously  his body was taken away from that place by clerics and buried on the aurelian way it was afterwards brought to the church of the saints cosmas and damian where under the sovereign pontiff gregory xiii it was found beneath the altar with the relics of the holy martyrs mark marcellian and tranquillinus and with the latter was put back in the same place on the 31st of july  in the same altar were also found the bodies of the holy martyrs abundius a priest and abundantius a deacon which were shortly after solemnly transferred to the church of the society of jesus on the eve of their feast  this entry was based on what the catholic encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of felix and liberius more recent editions of the roman martyrology have instead  at rome at the third milestone on the via portuensis in the cemetery dedicated to his name saint felix martyr the feast day of the roman martyr felix is 29 july occurring when the peace of constantine had been in force for half a century as well as the roman martyrology the roman missal identified the saint felix of 29 july with the antipope  this identification still found in the 1920 typical edition does not appear in the 1962 typical edition  to judge by the marietti printing of 1952 which omits the numeral ii and the word papae the correction had already been made by then 
albanberg berg was born in vienna the third of four children of johanna and conrad berg his family lived comfortably until the death of his father in 1900 he was more interested in literature than music as a child and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen when he started to teach himself music  in late february or early march 1902 he fathered a child with marie scheuchl a servant girl in the berg family household  his daughter albine was born on december 4 1902 berg had little formal music education before he became a student of arnold schoenberg in october 1904  with schoenberg he studied counterpoint music theory and harmony  by 1906 he was studying music fulltime by 1907 he began composition lessons  his student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas he also wrote songs including his seven early songs sieben frhe lieder three of which were bergs first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of schoenbergs pupils in vienna that year the early sonata sketches eventually culminated in bergs piano sonata op 1 19071908 it is one of the most formidable first works ever written berg studied with schoenberg for six years until 1911  berg admired him as a composer and mentor and they remained close lifelong friends among schoenbergs teaching was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a single basic idea this idea was later known as developing variation berg passed this on to his students one of whom theodor adorno stated  the main principle he conveyed was that of variation everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different the piano sonata is an examplethe whole composition is derived from the works opening quartal gesture and its opening phrase berg was a part of viennas cultural elite during the heady fin de sicle period  his circle included the musicians alexander von zemlinsky and franz schreker the painter gustav klimt the writer and satirist karl kraus the architect adolf loos and the poet peter altenberg in 1906 berg met the singer helene nahowski daughter of a wealthy family said by some to be in fact the illegitimate daughter of emperor franz joseph i of austria from his liaison with anna nahowski despite the outward hostility of her family the two were married on may 3 1911 in 1913 two of bergs five songs on picture postcard texts by peter altenberg 1912 were premired in vienna conducted by schoenberg settings of aphoristic poetic utterances the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra the performance caused a riot and had to be halted  this was a crippling blow to bergs selfconfidence he effectively withdrew the work which is surely one of the most extraordinarily innovative and assured first orchestral compositions in the literature and it was not performed in full until 1952  the full score remained unpublished until 1966 from 1915 to 1918 berg served in the austrian army and during a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera wozzeck after the end of world war i he settled again in vienna where he taught private pupils he also helped schoenberg run his society for private musical performances which sought to create the ideal environment for the exploration and appreciation of unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals repeat performances and the exclusion of professional critics three excerpts from wozzeck were performed in 1924 and this brought berg his first public success the opera which berg completed in 1922 was first performed on december 14 1925 when erich kleiber directed the first performance in berlin today wozzeck is seen as one of the centurys most important works  berg completed the orchestration of only the first two acts of his later threeact opera lulu before he died the first two acts were successfully premired in zrich in 1937 but for personal reasons helene berg subsequently imposed a ban on any attempt to complete the final act which berg had in fact completed in particell format an orchestration was therefore commissioned in secret from friedrich cerha and premired in paris under pierre boulez only in 1979 soon after helene bergs own death the complete opera has rapidly entered the repertoire as one of the landmarks of contemporary music and like wozzeck remains a consistent audience draw berg had interrupted the orchestration of lulu because of an unexpected and financially muchneeded commission from the russianamerican violinist louis krasner for a violin concerto 1935  this profoundly elegiac work composed at unaccustomed speed and posthumously premired has become bergs bestknown and beloved composition  like much of his mature work it employs an idiosyncratic adaptation of schoenbergs twelve tone technique that enables the composer to produce passages openly evoking tonality including quotations from historical tonal music such as a bach chorale and a carinthian folk song the violin concerto was dedicated to the memory of an angel manon the deceased daughter of architect walter gropius and alma mahler other wellknown berg compositions include the lyric suite 1926 which was later shown to employ elaborate cyphers to document a secret love affair the extraordinarily elaborate postmahlerian three pieces for orchestra completed in 1915 but not performed until after wozzeck and the chamber concerto kammerkonzert 192325 for violin piano and 13 wind instruments this latter is written so conscientiously that pierre boulez has called it bergs strictest composition and it too is permeated by cyphers and posthumously disclosed hidden programs berg died in vienna on christmas eve 1935 from blood poisoning apparently caused by an insectsting induced carbuncle on his back he had been reduced to nearpoverty and it is said that to save money his wife performed an illadvised home surgery using a pair of scissors   later he was rushed to hospital but too late to prevent the onset of blood poisoning he was 50 years old berg is remembered as one of the most important composers of the twentieth century and to date is the most widely performed opera composer among the second viennese school his popularity has been more easily secured than many other modernists since he plausibly combined both romantic and expressionist idioms   though bergs romanticism at one time seemed a drawback for some more modernist composers the berg scholar douglas jarman writes in the new grove as the 20th century closed the backwardlooking berg suddenly came as perle remarked to look like its most forwardlooking composer 
anthroposophy anthroposophical ideas have been applied practically in many areas including steinerwaldorf education special education most prominently the camphill movement biodynamic agriculture anthroposophical medicine ethical banking and the arts the early work of the founder of anthroposophy rudolf steiner culminated in his philosophy of freedom also translated as the philosophy of spiritual activity and intuitive thinking as a spiritual path here steiner developed a concept of free will based on inner experiences especially those that occur in the creative activity of independent thought by the beginning of the twentieth century steiners interests were leading him further and further into explicitly spiritual areas of research  these studies were of interest to others who were already oriented towards spiritual ideas among these was the theosophical society theosophy was in vogue in esotericism in germany and austria during that time  from 1900 on thanks to the positive reception given to his ideas steiners involvement with the theosophical society confirmed and reinforced his spiritual identity as a charismatic seer this became key to breaking the feeling of imposed silence that characterised his earlier life it was here that he was to find not only the woman who was to become his esoteric partner and second wife marie von sievers owner of the berlin theosophical headquarters but the answer to the question asked in his autobiography how can i find the way to express in terms understandable to my contemporaries what i inwardly perceive directly as the truth steiner took a leading role in the theosophical societys section in germany becoming its secretary in 1902  during the years of his leadership membership increased dramatically from a few individuals to sixtynine lodges by 1907 a split between steiner and the mainstream theosophical society had begun to become apparent  while the society was oriented toward an eastern and especially indian approach steiner was trying to develop a path that embraced christianity and natural science the split became irrevocable when annie besant then president of the theosophical society began to present the child jiddu krishnamurti as the reincarnated christ steiner strongly objected and considered any comparison between krishnamurti and christ to be nonsense many years later krishnamurti also repudiated the assertion  steiners continuing differences with besant led him to separate from the theosophical society adyar he was followed by the great majority of the membership of the theosophical societys german section as well as members of other national sections by this time steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher he spoke about what he considered to be his direct experience of the akashic records sometimes called the akasha chronicle thought to be a spiritual chronicle of the history prehistory and future of the world and mankind   in a number of works steiner described a path of inner development he felt would let anyone attain comparable spiritual experiences  sound vision could be developed in part by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive selfdiscipline concentration and meditation in particular a persons moral development must precede the development of spiritual faculties in 1912 the anthroposophical society was founded  after world war i the anthroposophical movement took on new directions  projects such as schools centers for those with special needs organic farms and medical clinics were established all inspired by anthroposophy  in 1923 faced with differences between older members focusing on inner development and younger members eager to become active in the social transformations of the time steiner refounded the society in an inclusive manner and established a school for spiritual science as a spiritual basis for the refounded movement steiner wrote the mantric poem foundation stone meditation expressing the aspects of the human soul in relation to the outer and spiritual worlds  steiner died just over a year later in 1925 the second world war temporarily hindered the anthroposophical movement in most of continental europe as the anthroposophical society and most of its daughter movements eg  steinerwaldorf education were banned by the national socialists nazis virtually no anthroposophists ever joined the national socialist party by 2007 national branches of the anthroposophical society had been established in fifty countries and about 10000 institutions around the world were working on the basis of anthroposophy  in the same year the anthroposophical society was called the most important esoteric society in european history the term anthroposophy is from  the greek virtually   from  human and  wisdom it is listed by nathan bailey 1742 as meaning the knowledge of the nature of man oed authors whose usage predates steiners include occultist agrippa von nettesheim alchemist thomas vaughn anthroposophia theomagica and philosophers immanuel hermann fichte and robert zimmermann anthroposophie im umriss steiner wrote his doctoral thesis on fichte and attended zimmermanns classes at the university of vienna steiner began using the word to refer to his philosophy in the early 1900s as an alternative to theosophy the term for madame blavatskys movement itself from the greek  with a longer history with a meaning of divine wisdom anthroposophical proponents aim to extend the clarity of the scientific method to phenomena of human soullife and to spiritual experiences  this requires developing new faculties of objective spiritual perception which steiner maintained was possible for humanity today the steps of this process of inner development he identified as consciously achieved imagination inspiration and intuition  steiner believed results of this form of spiritual research should be expressed in a way that can be understood and evaluated on the same basis as the results of natural science steiner hoped to form a spiritual movement that would free the individual from any external authority  the most important problem of all human thinking is this to comprehend the human being as a personality grounded in him or herself  for steiner the human capacity for rational thought would allow individuals to comprehend spiritual research on their own and bypass the danger of dependency on an authority steiner contrasted the anthroposophical approach with both conventional mysticism which he considered lacking the clarity necessary for exact knowledge and natural science which he considered arbitrarily limited to investigating the outer world steiner saw human beings as consisting of a physical body of a nature common to the inorganic world a life body also called the etheric body which all living creatures including plants possess the bearer of sentience or consciousness also called the astral body held also by all animals and the ego which anchors the faculty of selfawareness unique to human beings anthroposophy describes a broad evolution of human consciousness as follows  early stages of human evolution possess an intuitive perception of reality including a clairvoyant perception of spiritual realities  humanity has progressively evolved an increasing reliance on intellectual faculties and a corresponding loss of intuitive or clairvoyant experiences which have become atavistic the increasing intellectualization of consciousness initially a progressive direction of evolution has led to an excessive reliance on abstraction and a loss of contact with both natural and spiritual realities  however to go further requires new capacities that combine the clarity of intellectual thought with the imagination and beyond this with consciously achieved inspiration and intuitive insights anthroposophy speaks of the reincarnation of the human spirit that the human being passes between stages of existence incarnating into an earthly body living on earth leaving the body behind and entering into the spiritual worlds before returning to be born again into a new life on earth  after the death of the physical body the human spirit recapitulates the past life perceiving its events as they were experienced by the objects of its actions a complex transformation takes place between the review of the past life and the preparation for the next life the individuals karmic condition eventually leads to a choice of parents physical body disposition and capacities that provide the challenges and opportunities that further development requires which includes karmically chosen tasks for the future life steiner described some conditions that determine the interdependence of a persons lives or karma lucifer and his counterpart ahriman figure in anthroposophy as two polar generally evil influences on world and human evolution  steiner described both positive and negative aspects of both figures he described lucifer as the light spirit which plays on human pride and offers the delusion of divinity but also motivates creativity and spirituality ahriman as the dark spirit which tempts human beings todeny their link with divinity and to live entirely on the material plane but also stimulates intellectuality and technology  both figures exert a negative effect on humanity when their influence becomes misplaced or onesided yet their influences are necessary for human freedom to unfold according to anthroposophy each human being has the task to find a balance between these opposing influences and each is helped in this task by the mediation of the representative of humanity also known as the christ being a spiritual entity who stands between and harmonizes the two extremes applications of anthroposophy include this is a pedagogical movement with over 1000 steiner or waldorf schools the latter name stems from the first such school founded in stuttgart in 1919 located in some 60 countries the great majority of these are independent private schools  sixteen of the schools have been affiliated with the united nations unesco associated schools project network which sponsors education projects that foster improved quality of education throughout the world in particular in terms of its ethical cultural and international dimensions  waldorf schools receive full or partial governmental funding in some european nations australia and in parts of the united states as waldorf method public or charter schools the schools are located in a wide variety of communities and cultures from the impoverished favelas of so paulo to the wealthy suburbs of new york city and has been characterized as the leader of the international movement for a new education biodynamic agriculture the first intentional form of organic farming began in the 1920s when rudolf steiner gave a series of lectures since published as agriculture steiner is considered one of the founders of the modern organic farming movement by david curtis ferree ian j warrington isbn 0851993575 p 553 steiner gave several series of lectures to physicians and medical students  out of those grew a complementary medical movement which now includes hundreds of mds chiefly in europe and north america and has its own clinics hospitals and medical schools in 1922 ita wegman founded an anthroposophical center for special needs education the sonnenhof in switzerland in 1940 karl knig founded the camphill movement in scotland the latter in particular has spread widely and there are now over a hundred camphill communities and other anthroposophical homes for children and adults in need of special care in about 22 countries around the world steiner himself designed around thirteen buildings many of them significant works in a unique organicexpressionist architectural style  foremost among these are his designs for the two goetheanum buildings in dornach switzerland thousands of further buildings have been built by later generations of anthroposophic architects architects who have been strongly influenced by the anthroposophic style include imre makovecz in hungary hans scharoun and joachim eble in germany erik asmussen in sweden  kenji imai in japan thomas rau anton alberts and max van huut in holland christopher day and camphill architects in the uk thompson and rose in america denis bowman in canada and walter burley griffin and gregory burgess in australia one of the most famous contemporary buildings by an anthroposophical architect is ing house an ing bank building in amsterdam which has received several awards for its ecological design and approach to a selfsustaining ecology as an autonomous building and example of sustainable architecture in the arts steiners new art of eurythmy gained early renown  eurythmy seeks to renew the spiritual foundations of dance revealing speech and music in visible movement  there are now active stage groups and training centers mostly of modest proportions in 12 countries around the world today are a number of banks companies charities and schools for developing cooperative forms of business using steiners ideas about economic associations aiming at harmonious and socially responsible roles in the world economy  socially responsible banks founded out of anthroposophy in the englishspeaking world include triodos bank founded in 1980 and active in the uk netherlands and spain la nef in france and rsf social finance in san francisco bernard lievegoed a psychiatrist founded a new method of individual and institutional development oriented towards humanizing organizations and linked with steiners ideas of the threefold social order  this work is represented by the npi institute for organizational development in holland and sister organizations in many other countries there are also anthroposophical movements to renew speech and drama the most important of which are based in the work of marie steinervon sivers speech formation also known as creative speech and the chekhov method originated by michael chekhov nephew of anton chekhov other areas of anthroposophic work include for a period after world war i steiner was extremely active and wellknown in germany in part because he lectured widely proposing social reforms  steiner was a sharp critic of nationalism which he saw as outdated and a proponent of achieving social solidarity through individual freedom anthroposophy continues to aim at reforming society through maintaining and strengthening the independence of the spheres of cultural life human rights and the economy it emphasizes a particular ideal in each of these three realms of society according to steiner a real spiritual world exists out of which the material one gradually condensed and evolved  steiner held that the spiritual world can be researched in the right circumstances through direct experience by persons practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive selfdiscipline  steiner described many exercises he said were suited to strengthening such selfdiscipline the most complete exposition of these is found in his book how to know higher worlds the aim of these exercises is to develop higher levels of consciousness through meditation and observation  details about the spiritual world steiner suggested could on such a basis be discovered and reported though no more infallibly than the results of natural science steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience he suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises for example concentrating on an object such as a seed moral development control of thought feelings and will combined with openness tolerance and flexibility and familiarity with other spiritual researchers results would best further an individuals spiritual development he consistently emphasised that any inner spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with ones responsibilities in outer life in anthroposophy artistic expression is also treated as a potentially valuable bridge between spiritual and material reality steiners stated prerequisites to beginning on a spiritual path include a willingness to take up serious cognitive studies a respect for factual evidence and a responsible attitude  central to progress on the path itself is a harmonious cultivation of the following qualities steiner sees meditation as a concentration and enhancement of the power of thought  by focusing consciously on an idea feeling or intention the meditant seeks to arrive at pure thinking a state exemplified by but not confined to pure mathematics  in steiners view conventional sensorymaterial knowledge is achieved through relating perception and concepts the anthroposophic path of esoteric training articulates three further stages of supersensory knowledge which do not necessarily follow strictly sequentially in any single individuals spiritual progress steiner described numerous exercises he believed would bring spiritual development other anthroposophists have added many others a central principle is that for every step in spiritual perception three steps are to be taken in moral development  according to anthroposophy moral development reveals the extent to which one has achieved control over ones inner life and can exercise it in harmony with the spiritual life of other people it shows the real progress in spiritual development the fruits of which are given in spiritual perception it also guarantees the capacity to distinguish between false perceptions or illusions which are possible in perceptions of both the outer world and the inner world and true perceptions or better said to distinguish in any perception between the influence of subjective elements ie viewpoint and the objective reality the perception points at steiner built upon goethes conception of an imaginative power capable of synthesizing the senseperceptible form of a thing an image of its outer appearance and the concept we have of that thing an image of its inner structure or nature  steiner added to this the conception that a further step in the development of thinking is possible when the thinker observes his or her own thought processes the organ of observation and the observed thought process are then identical so that the condition thus arrived at is simultaneously one of perception through thinking and one of thought through perception thus in steiners view we can overcome the subjectobject divide through inner activity even though all human experience begins by being conditioned by it  in this connection steiner examines the step from thinking determined by outer impressions to what he calls sensefree thinking he characterizes thoughts he considers without sensory content such as mathematical or logical thoughts as free deeds  steiner believed he had thus located the origin of free will in our thinking and in particular in sensefree thinking some of the epistemic basis for steiners later anthroposophical work is contained in the seminal work philosophy of freedom in his early works steiner sought to overcome what he perceived as the dualism of cartesian idealism and kantian subjectivism by developing goethes conception of the human being as a naturalsupernatural entity that is natural in that humanity is a product of nature supernatural in that through our conceptual powers we extend natures realm allowing it to achieve a reflective capacity in us as philosophy art and science  steiner was one of the first european philosophers to overcome the subjectobject split in western thought and richard tarnas steiner believed in the possibility of applying the clarity of scientific thinking to spiritual experience which he saw as deriving from an objectively existing spiritual world  steiner identified mathematics which attains certainty through thinking itself thus through inner experience rather than empirical observation as the basis of his epistemology of spiritual experience steiners writing though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments emphasizes western tradition as having evolved to meet contemporary needs thus anthroposophy considers there to be a being who unifies all religions and who is not represented by any particular religious faith  this being is according to steiner not only the redeemer of the fall from paradise but also the unique pivot and meaning of earths evolutionary processes and of human history rather than any denominational term this view has certain similarities to the concepts of christogenesis advocated by pierre teilhard de chardin steiners views of christianity diverge from conventional christian thought in key places and include gnostic elements towards the end of steiners life a group of theology students primarily lutheran with some catholic members approached steiner for help in reviving christianity in particular to bridge the widening gulf between modern science and the world of spirit anthroposophy has had many prominent supporters outside of the movement among these have been many writers artists and musicians these include pulitzer prizewinning and nobel laureate saul bellow andrei bely joseph beuys owen barfield wassily kandinsky nobel laureates selma lagerlf and albert schweitzer andrei tarkovsky bruno walter and alternative nobel prize winner ibrahim abouleish though rudolf steiner studied natural science at the vienna technical university at the undergraduate level his doctorate was in epistemology and very little of his work is directly concerned with the traditional realm of contemporary science the natural world when in his mature work he did refer to science it was often to present goethean science as an alternative to what he considered the materialistic science of his contemporaries in fact the term science is used more broadly in europe as a general term that refers to any exact knowledge whether this is a sufficient basis for anthroposophy to be considered a spiritual science has been a matter of controversy  as freda easton explained in her study of waldorf schools whether one accepts anthroposophy as a science depends upon whether one accepts steiners interpretation of a science that extends the consciousness and capacity of human beings to experience their inner spiritual world  sven ove hansson has disputed anthroposophys claim to a scientific basis stating that its ideas are not empirically derived and neither reproducible nor testable  carlo willmann points out that as on its own terms anthroposophical methodology offers no possibility of being falsified except through its own procedures of spiritual investigation no intersubjective validation is possible by conventional scientific methods it thus cannot stand up to positivistic sciences criticism though steiner saw that spiritual vision itself is difficult for others to achieve he recommended openmindedly exploring and rationally testing the results of such research he also urged others to follow a spiritual training that would allow them directly to apply the methods he used eventually to achieve comparable results as an explicitly spiritual movement anthroposophy has sometimes been called a religious philosophy  in 2005 a california federal court ruled that a group alleging that anthroposophy is a religion for establishment clause purposes did not provide any legally admissible evidence in support of this view the case is under appeal  in 2000 a french court ruled that a government ministers description of anthroposophy as a cult was defamatory anthroposophical ideas have been criticized from both sides in the race debate for their strong stance against racism the anthroposophical society in america has stated 
alph see also 
affection more specifically the word has been restricted to emotional states the object of which is a person   in the former sense it is the greek pathos and as such it appears in the writings of french philosopher ren descartes dutch philosopher baruch spinoza and most of the writings of early british ethicists   however on various grounds eg that it does not involve anxiety or excitement and that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous element it is generally and usefully distinguished from passion   in this narrower sense the word has played a great part in ethical systems which have spoken of the social or parental affections as in some sense a part of moral obligation   for a consideration of these and similar problems which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary see h sidgwick methods of ethics pp345349 numerous behaviors are used by people to express affection some theories suggest that affectionate behavior evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards with research verifying that expressions of affection although commonly evaluated positively can be considered negative if they pose implied threats to ones well being  furthermore affectionate behavior in positively valenced relationships may be associated with numerous health benefits  other more loving type gestures of affectionate behavior include obvious signs of liking a person in psychology the terms affection and affective are of great importance  as all intellectual phenomena have by experimentalists been reduced to sensation so all emotion has been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately composed the nature of this element is a problem that has been provisionally but not conclusively solved by many psychologists the method is necessarily experimental and all experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult the solutions proposed are two   in the first all affection phenomena are primarily divisible into those that are pleasurable and those that are the reverse the main objections to this are that it does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena and that it disregards the distinction that most philosophers admit between higher and lower pleasures the second solution is that every sensation has its specific affective quality though by reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name   w wundt outlines of psychology trans   c h judd leipzig 1897 maintains that we may group under three main affective directions each with its negative all the infinite varieties in question these are a pleasure or rather pleasantness and displeasure b tension and relaxation c excitement and depression   these two views are antithetic and no solution has been discovered american psychologist henry murray 18931988 developed a theory of personality that was organized in terms of motives presses and needs   according to murray these psychogenic needs function mostly on the unconscious level but play a major role in our personality  murray classified five affection needs two methods of experiment on affection have been tried mention should also be made of a third method that has hardly yet been tried namely that of endeavouring to isolate one of the three directions by the method of suggestion or even hypnotic trance observations for a contemporary text regarding the expression of affection see for the subject of emotion in general see modern textbooks of psychology eg those of 
abergavenny it is located 15 miles 24km west of monmouth on the a40 and a465 roads 6 miles 10km from the english border within the welsh marches situated at the confluence of a tributary stream the gavenny and the river usk it is almost surrounded by two mountains  the blorenge 559m and the sugar loaf 596m  and five hills  ysgyryd fawr the skirrid ysgyryd fach skirrid fach deri rholben and mynydd llanwenarth known locally as llanwenarth breast the town is situated just south of the black mountains part of the brecon beacons national park offas dyke path long distance footpath passes close by and the marches way the beacons way and usk valley walk all pass through the town a sign on the town hall gives abergavenny the title gateway to wales formerly a medieval walled town it was originally a roman fort gobannium it contains the remains of a medieval stone castle built soon after the norman conquest of wales gobannium was a roman fort guarding the road along the valley of the river usk which linked the legionary fortress of burrium usk and later isca augusta caerleon in the south with y gaer brecon and mid wales it was also built to keep the peace among the local british iron age tribe the silures remains of the walls of this fort were discovered west of the castle when excavating the foundations for a new post office and telephone exchange building in the late 1960s the name derives from a brythonic word gobannia meaning river of the blacksmiths and relates to the towns preroman importance in iron smelting the name is related to the modern welsh word gof blacksmith and so is also associated with the welsh smith gofannon from folklore the river later became in welsh gafenni and the towns name became abergavenny meaning mouth of welsh aber the gavenny gafenni in welsh the shortened form y fenni may have come into use for a very short period after about the 15th century although pronounced similarly in english or welsh the english spelling abergavenny is in general use abergavenny grew as a town in early norman times under the protection of the lords of abergavenny the first baron was hamelin de balun from ballon a small town and castle in maineanjou called gateway to maine near le mans today in the sarthe dpartement of france he founded the benedictine priory now the priory church of st mary in the late 11th century the priory belonged originally to the benedictine foundation of st vincent abbaye at le mans it was subsequently endowed by william de braose with a tenth or tithe of the profits of the castle and town the church contains some unique alabaster effigies church monuments and unique medieval wood carving such as the tree of jesse owing to its geographical location the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare and power play of the 12th and 13th centuries in the welsh marches in 1175 abergavenny castle was the scene of a reputed massacre of local welsh chieftains by the pious and ruthless william de braose so the story goes after a period of discord and conflict he invited the local leaders to a christmas banquet under the pretext of resolving differences and building relations but his plan was to eliminate them  accepting his supposed hospitality at a traditional time for settling differences the influential welsh leaders of the surrounding areas nearly all arrived proffered their swords as tokens of peaceful intent to servants and unarmed were ushered further into the castle where de braoses armed soldiers hacked them down in cold blood  giraldus cambrensis relates how in 1182 the castle was seized back by the welsh owain glyndr attacked abergavenny in 1404  according to popular legend his raiders gained access to the walled town with the aid of a local woman who sympathised with the rebellion letting a small party in via the market street gate at midnight they were able to open the gate and allow a much larger party who set fire to the town and plundered its churches and homes leaving abergavenny castle intact  market street has been referred to as traitors lane thereafter  in 1404 abergavenny was declared its own nation by ieuan ab owain glyndr illegitimate son of owain glyndr the arrangement lasted approximately two weeks at the dissolution of the monasteries in 1541 the priorys endowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school king henry viii grammar school the site itself passing to the gunter family during the civil war prior to the siege of raglan castle in 1645 king charles i visited abergavenny and presided in person over the trial of sir trefor williams 1st baronet of llangibby a royalist who changed sides and other parliamentarians in 1639 abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses a charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657 but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect  owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath of allegiance to william iii in 1688 the charter was annulled and the town subsequently declined in prosperity  chapter 28 of the 1535 act of henry viii which provided that monmouth as county town should return one burgess to parliament further stated that other ancient monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member  in consequence of this clause abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election the last instance being in 1685 reference to a market at abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the prior by william de braose d 1211  the right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs as held ever since was confirmed in 1657  abergavenny was celebrated for the production of welsh flannel and also for the manufacture whilst the fashion prevailed of goats hair periwigs the title of baron abergavenny in the nevill family dates from edward nevill 3rd baron bergavenny d 1476 who was the youngest son of ralph de neville 1st earl of westmorland by his second wife joan beaufort daughter of john of gaunt first duke of lancaster he married the heiress of richard de beauchamp 1st earl of worcester whose father had inherited the castle and estate of abergavenny and was summoned in 1392 to parliament as lord bergavenny edward nevill was summoned to parliament with this title in 1450  his direct male descendants ended in 1387 in henry nevill 6th baron bergavenny but a cousin edward nevill 8th baron bergavenny d 1622 was confirmed in the barony in 1604  from him it has descended continuously through fifteen individuals the title being increased to an earldom in 1784 and in 1876 william nevill sic 5th earl b 1826 d1915 an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the tory party was created 1st marquess of abergavenny abergavenny railway station opened 2 january 1854 and is on the welsh marches line adolf hitlers deputy rudolf hess was kept under escort at maindiff court during the second world war after his flight to britain abergavenny is the home of abergavenny thursdays fc which was formed in 1927 and is currently a member of the gwent county league division 3  the clubs current position comes within 15 years of their being one of the top sides in welsh football winning the old format welsh football league in 1991 and 1992 but being relegated in 1993 after just one season in the newly formed league of wales the club suffered relegation from the welsh football league in 2001 and has since slipped down through the next two divisions into its current position although the future is now looking brighter abergavenny cricket club play at penypound avenue road and glamorgan ccc play some of their games here  abergavenny cricket club is one of the oldest in the country and celebrated the 175th anniversary of its foundation in 2009 abergavenny tennis club also play at penypound and fields mens ladies mixed and junior teams where it has tasted success on many occasions the club engages the services of a head tennis professional to run a coaching programme for the town abergavenny is also the home of abergavenny rfc a rugby union club founded in 1875 who play at bailey park they play in the welsh rugby union division two east league abergavenny hosted the british national cycling championships in 2007 and 2009 a cattle market has been held in abergavenny on its current site since 1863  during the period 18251863 a sheep market was held at a site in castle street to stop the sale of sheep on the streets of the town  today the market is leased and operated by abergavenny market auctioneers ltd who hold regular livestock auctions on the site  market days are  tuesday  the sale of finished sheep cull ewestore a fodder auction sale of hay and straw some fridays  the sale of cattle a few other sales are held on the site on other days throughout the year following the closure of newport cattle market to make way for a new development  newports sale will be held at abergavenny cattle market on every wednesday following the sale of the cattle market land to morrisons a new cattle market will now be provided out of town once the market act has been repealed various markets are held in the market hall for example  tuesdays  retail market which also stretches into the town hall car park and temporarily the cattle market while brewery yard car park is regenerated wednesday  flea market 4th thursday of the month a farmers market friday  retail market saturday  retail market also in the town hall car park 3rd sunday of the month  antique fair 2nd saturday  craft fair during september the town holds the abergavenny food festival from 1851 the monmouthshire lunatic asylum later penyfal hospital a psychiatric hospital httpwwwcountyasylumscommentalasylumspenyfal01htm stood on the outskirts of abergavenny between 1851 and 1950 over 3000 patients died at the hospital a memorial plaque for the deceased has now been placed at the site 
atari5200 the atari 5200 supersystem or simply the atari 5200 is a video game console that was introduced in 1982 by atari inc as a higher end complimentary console for the popular atari 2600   the 5200 was created to compete with the intellivision but wound up more directly competing with the colecovision shortly after its release the 5200 was based on atari incs existing 400800 computers and the internal hardware was almost identical although software was not directly compatible between the two systems the 5200s controllers feature an analog joystick and a numeric keypad along with start pause and reset buttons the 360degree noncentering joystick was touted as offering more control than the fourposition joystick controller offered with the atari 2600 in august of 2009 video game website ign placed the 5200 23rd out of the 25 greatest video game consoles of all time much of the technology in the atari 8bit family of home computer systems were originally developed as a secondgeneration games console intended to replace the 2600  however as the system was reaching completion the personal computer revolution was starting with the release of machines like the commodore pet trs80 and apple ii these machines were similar in technological terms to the 2600 but sold for much higher prices with associated higher profit margins  ataris management decided to enter this market and the new technology was repackaged into the atari 400 and 800 hitting the market in 1979 in the early 1980s a second wave of games consoles came to market notably the intellivision and numerous other announcements and releases  being behind the technological curve was not entirely surprising the chipset used in the 400 and 800 was designed because they were aware the 2600 would be obsolete by the 1980 time frame  what was surprising was the sudden entry into the market of new competition whose machines quickly cut off the sales of the 2600  atari decided to reenter the games market with a design that closely matched their original 1978 specifications  in its prototype stage the atari 5200 was originally called the atari video system x  advanced video computer system and was codenamed pam after a female employee at atari inc it is also rumored that pam actually stood for personal arcade machine as the majority of games for the system ended up being arcade conversions  actual working atari video system x machines whose hardware is 100 identical to the atari 5200 do exist but they are extremely rare the initial 1982 release of the system featured four controller ports where nearly all other systems of the day had only two ports the 5200 also featured a revolutionary new controller with an analog joystick numeric keypad two fire buttons on each side of the controller and game function keys for start pause and reset the 5200 also featured the innovation of the first automatic tv switchbox allowing it to automatically switch from regular tv viewing to the game system signal when the system was activated   previous rf adapters required the user to slide a switch on the adapter by hand  this unique rf box was also where the power supply connected in a unique dual powertelevision signal setup similar to the rca studio iis a single cable coming out of the 5200 plugged into the switch box and was used for both electricity and the television signal the 1983 revision of the atari 5200 has two controller ports instead of four and a change back to the more conventional separate power supply and standard nonautoswitching rf switch it also has changes in the cartridge port address lines to allow for the atari 2600 adapter released that year  while the adapter was only made to work on the twoport version modifications can be made to the fourport to make it linecompatible  in fact towards the end of the fourport models production run there were a limited number of consoles produced which included these modifications  these consoles can be identified by an asterisk in their serial number the controller prototypes used in the electrical development lab used a yoke and gimbal mechanism that came from an rc airplane controller kit  this simple design gave very nice smooth linear control and was highly reliable the production controllers were quite different and a great disappointment to the electrical and software development teams the design of the analog joystick which used a weak rubber boot rather than springs to provide centering proved to be ungainly and unreliable they ultimately alienated consumers and quickly became the achilles heel of the system because of their combination of an overly complex mechanical design with a very lowcost internal flex circuit system  another major flaw of the controllers was that the design did not translate into a linear acceleration from the center through the arc of the stick travel the controllers did however include a pause button a unique feature at the time  various third party replacement joysticks were also released including those made by wico atari inc released the proline trakball controller for the system which was used primarily for gaming titles such as centipede or defender a paddle controller and an updated selfcentering version of the original controller were also in development but never made it to market the primary controller was ranked the 10th worst video game controller by ign editor craig harris although the atari 5200s internal design was extensively based on that of the 400800 home computers the differences were sufficient that games designed for one would not run directly on the other one of the most obvious differences was the 5200s lack of a keyboard  however there were several others atari corps later xe games system revisited the idea of a console based on the 400800 hardware  however as this was essentially just a 65xe computer with a detachable keyboard it was able to run most of the home computer titles directly the atari 5200 is said to have suffered from its software incompatibility with the atari 2600   however an adapter was released in 1983 along with a revision allowing it to play all atari 2600 games  since backwardscompatibility was not a pressing concern with gamers who were attracted to the 5200s promise of better resolution graphics and improved sound it is unlikely this played a huge role in the 5200s perceived failure in the market what many consider to be of larger concern to gamers at the time was the packin game superbreakout unfortunately this was not a title that could draw mass appeal in the same way donkey kong did for the colecovision where donkey kong showed off the graphics and sound capabilities of the colecovision superbreakout had the opposite effect and is very likely the largest culprit to the 5200s under performance in the market another problem was the lack of attention that atari inc gave to the console most of its resources went to the already oversaturated atari 2600  it faced an uphill battle competing with the colecovisions headstart and a faltering video game market at one point during the 5200s lifespan atari inc planned on developing a smaller costreduced version of the atari 5200 which would have gotten rid of the controller storage bin  codenamed the atari 5100 aka  atari 5200 jr only a few fully working prototype atari 5100s were made before the project was canceled on may 21 1984 during a press conference at which the atari 7800 was introduced company executives revealed that the 5200 had been discontinued   total sales of the 5200 were reportedly in excess of 1 million units 
aberdeenbestiary the aberdeen bestiary aberdeen university library univ lib ms 24 is a 12th century english illuminated manuscript bestiary that was first listed in 1542 in the inventory of the old royal library at the palace of westminster information about its origins and patron are circumstantial it probably comes from the 12th century and was owned by an ecclesiastical patron of the north or south province the aberdeen bestiary is related to other bestiaries of the middle ages and especially the ashmole bestiary some argue that the aberdeen bestiary might be the older of the twodatejuly 2010 after folio 9 verso some leaves are missing which should have contained antelope antalops unicorn unicornis lynx lynx griffin gryps and part of elephant elephans after folio 15 verso some leaves are missing which should have contained crocodile crocodilus manticore mantichora and part of parandrus parandrus after folio 21 verso two leaves are missing which should have contained ox bos camel camelus dromedary dromedarius ass asinus onager onager and part of horse equus 
ans as an acronym ans may refer to 
alcapp born in new haven connecticut of russian jewish heritage capp was the eldest child of otto philip and matilda davidson caplin capps parents were both natives of latvia whose families had migrated to new haven in the 1880s  my mother and father had been brought to this country from russia when they were infants wrote capp in 1978  their fathers had found that the great promise of america was trueit was no crime to be a jew the caplins were dirt poor and capp later recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal capp lost his left leg in a trolley accident at the age of nine  this childhood tragedy likely helped shape capps cynical worldview which funny as it was was certainly darker and more sardonic than that of the average newspaper cartoonist i was indignant as hell about that leg he would reveal in a november 1950 interview in time magazine capps father a failed businessman and reportedly an amateur cartoonist introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy he became quite proficient learning mostly on his own  among his earliest influences were punch cartoonistillustrator phil may and american comic strip cartoonists tad dorgan cliff sterrett rube goldberg rudolph dirks fred opper billy debeck george mcmanus and milt gross at about this same time capp became a voracious reader  according to capps brother elliot alfred had finished all of shakespeare and george bernard shaw by the time he turned 13  among his childhood favorites were dickens smollett mark twain booth tarkington and later robert benchley and s j perelman capp spent five years at bridgeport high school in bridgeport connecticut without receiving a diploma the cartoonist liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms  his formal training came from a series of art schools in the new england area  attending three of them in rapid succession the impoverished capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuitionthe boston museum school of fine arts the pennsylvania academy of fine arts and designers art school in bostonthe latter before launching his amazing career  capp had already decided to become a cartoonist i heard that bud fisher creator of mutt and jeff got 3000 a week and was constantly marrying french countesses capp said i decided that was for me in early 1932 capp hitchhiked to new york city he lived in airless rat holes in greenwich village and turned out advertising strips at 2 apiece while scouring the city hunting for jobs he eventually found work at the associated press at 23years old he was reportedly the youngest syndicated cartoonist in america by march 1932 capp was drawing colonel gilfeather a singlepanel apowned property created in 1930 by dick dorgan capp changed the focus and title to mister gilfeather but soon grew to hate the feature he left the associated press in september 1932  before leaving he met milton caniff and the two became lifelong friends  capp moved to boston and married catherine wingate cameron whom he had met earlier in art class she died in 2006 at the age of 96 leaving his new wife with her parents in amesbury massachusetts he subsequently returned to new york in 1933 in the midst of the great depression i was 23 i carried a mass of drawings and i had nearly five dollars in my pocket  people were sleeping in alleys then willing to work at anything  there he met ham fisher who hired him to ghost on joe palooka during one of fishers extended vacations capps joe palooka story arc introduced a stupid coarse oafish mountaineer named big leviticus a crude prototype  leviticus was actually much closer to capps later villains lem and luke scragg than to the much more appealing and innocent lil abner also during this period capp was working at night on samples for the strip that would eventually become lil abner he based his cast of characters on the authentic mountaindwellers he met while hitchhiking through rural west virginia and the cumberland valley as a teenager  this was years before the tennessee valley authority act brought basic utilities like electricity and running water to the region leaving joe palooka capp sold lil abner to united feature syndicate now known as united media the feature was launched on monday august 13 1934 in eight north american newspapersincluding the new york mirrorand was an immediate success  alfred g caplin eventually became al capp because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame  capp had it changed legally in 1949 his younger brother elliot caplin also became a comic strip creator best known for cocreating the soap opera strip the heart of juliet jones with artist stan drake and conceiving the comic strip character broom hilda with cartoonist russell myers elliot also authored several offbroadway plays including a nickel for picasso 1981 which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother what began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative popular and welldrawn strips of the 20th century  featuring vividly outlandish characters bizarre situations and equal parts suspense slapstick irony satire black humor and biting social commentary lil abner is considered a classic of the genre the comic strip stars lil abner yokumthe simpleminded loutish but goodnatured and eternally innocent hayseed who lives with his parentsscrawny but superhuman mammy yokum and shiftless childlike pappy yokum the yokums live in the backwater hamlet of dogpatch kentucky described by its creator as an average stoneage community dogpatch mostly consists of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins pine trees tarnip fields and hawg wallows  whatever energy abner had went into evading the marital goals of daisy mae scragg his sexy wellendowed but virtuous girlfrienduntil capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry  this newsworthy event made the cover of life on march 31 1952 capp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters including marryin sam hairless joe lonesome polecat evileye fleegle general bullmoose lena the hyena senator jack s phogbound capps caricature of the antinew deal dixiecrats the shudder scraggs washable jones nightmare alice earthquake mcgoon and a host of others  most notably certainly from a gi point of view are the beautiful fullfigured women like daisy mae wolf gal stupefyin jones and moonbeam mcswine a caricature of his wife catherine aside from the dirtall of whom found their way onto the painted noses of bomber planes during world war ii and the korean war perhaps capps most popular creations were the shmoos creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it  another famous character was joe btfsplk who wants to be a loving friend but is the worlds worst jinx bringing bad luck to all those nearby  btfsplk his name is pronounced by simply blowing a raspberry or bronx cheer always has an iconic dark cloud over his head dogpatch residents regularly combat the likes of city slickers business tycoons government officials and intellectuals with their homespun simplicity  situations often take the characters to other destinations including new york city washington dc hollywood tropical islands the moon mars and some purely fanciful worlds of capps invention the latter includes el passionato kigmyland the republic of crumbumbo skunk hollow the valley of the shmoon planets pincus number 2 and 7 and a miserable frozen wasteland known as lower slobbovia a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference  indeed lil abner incorporates such a panoply of characters and ideas that it defies summary according to cultural historian anthony harkins yet though capps storylines often wandered far afield his hillbilly setting remained a central touchstone serving both as a microcosm and a distorting carnival mirror of broader american society  the strips popularity grew from an original eight papers to ultimately more than 900  at its peak lil abner was read daily by 70 million americans the us population at the time was only 180 million with adult readers far outnumbering children  many communities high schools and colleges staged sadie hawkins dances patterned after the similar annual event in the strip lil abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades the part in his hair always faces the viewer no matter which direction abner is facing  in response to the question which side does abner part his hair on capp would answer both capp said he finally found the right look for lil abner with henry fondas character dave tolliver in the trail of the lonesome pine 1936  in later years capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt when he first put one on daisy mae in 1934 besides dick tracy capp parodied many other comic strips in lil abnerincluding steve canyon superman at least twice first as jack jawbreaker 1947 and again in 1966 as chickensouperman mary worth peanuts little annie rooney and little orphan annie in which punjab became punjbag an oleaginous slob  fearless fosdickand capps other spoofs like little fanny gooney 1952 and jack jawbreakerwere almost certainly an early inspiration for harvey kurtzmans mad magazine which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner capp also lampooned popular recording idols of the day such as elvis presley hawg mccall 1957 liberace loverboynik 1956 the beatles the beasties 1964and in 1944 frank sinatra sinatra was the first great public figure i ever wrote about capp once said i called him hal fascinatra i remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it he always made it a point to send me champagne whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant from frank sinatra my father by nancy sinatra 1985  on the other hand liberace was cut to the quick over loverboynik according to capp and even threatened legal actionas would joan baez later over joanie phoanie in 1967 capp was just as likely to parody himself his selfcaricature made frequent tongueincheek appearances in lil abner the gag was often at his own expense as in the above 1951 sequence showing capps interaction with fans see excerpt or in his 1955 disneyland parody hal yappland just about anything could be a target for capps satirein one storyline lil abner is revealed to be the missing link between ape and man  in another the search is on in dogpatch for a pair of missing socks knitted by the first president of the united states in addition to creating lil abner capp also cocreated two other newspaper strips  abbie an slats with magazine illustrator raeburn van buren in 1937 and long sam with cartoonist bob lubbers in 1954 as well as the sunday topper strips washable jones small fry aka small change and advice fo chillun according to comics historian coulton waugh a 1947 poll of newspaper readers who claimed they ignored the comics page altogether revealed that many confessed to making a single exception  lil abner when lil abner made its debut in 1934 the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers  capp turned that world upsidedown by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into lil abner the strip was the first to regularly introduce characters and story lines having nothing to do with the nominal stars of the strip the techniqueas invigorating as it was unorthodoxwas later adopted by cartoonists like walt kelly pogo and garry trudeau doonesbury wrote comic strip historian rick marschall according to marschall lil abner gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature  in his book americas great comic strip artists 1989 marschalls analysis revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext  capp was calling society absurd not just silly human nature not simply misguided but irredeemably and irreducibly corrupt  unlike any other strip and indeed unlike many other pieces of literature lil abner was more than a satire of the human condition it was a commentary on human nature itself over the years lil abner has been adapted to radio animated cartoons stage production motion pictures and television  capp has been compared at various times to mark twain dostoevski jonathan swift lawrence sterne and rabelais fans of the strip ranged from novelist john steinbeck who called capp possibly the best writer in the world today in 1953 and even earnestly recommended him for the nobel prize in literatureto media critic and theorist marshall mcluhan who considered capp the only robust satirical force in american life  john updike comparing abner to a hillbilly candide added that the strips richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the voltairean  charlie chaplin william f buckley al hirschfeld harpo marx russ meyer john kenneth galbraith ralph bakshi shel silverstein hugh downs gene shalit frank cho daniel clowes  and reportedly even queen elizabeth have confessed to being fans of lil abner during world war ii and for many years afterward capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life  making no secret of his own disability capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life  in 1946 capp created a special fullcolor comic book al capp by lil abner to be distributed by the red cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war  capp was also involved with the sister kenny foundation which pioneered new treatments for polio in the 1940s  serving in his capacity as honorary chairman capp made public appearances on its behalf for years contributed free artwork for its annual fundraising appeals and entertained crippled and paraplegic children in childrens hospitals with inspirational pep talks humorous stories and sketches in 1940 an rko movie adaptation starred granville owen later known as jeff york as lil abner with buster keaton taking the role of lonesome polecat and featuring a title song with lyrics by milton berle a successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on broadway at the st james theater on november 15 1956 and had a long run of 693 performances followed by a nationwide tour the stage musical with music and lyrics by gene de paul and johnny mercer was adapted into a technicolor motion picture at paramount in 1959 by producer norman panama and director melvin frank with a score by nelson riddle several performers repeated their broadway roles in the film most memorably julie newmar as stupefyin jones and stubby kaye as marryin sam other highlights of that decade included the 1942 debut of fearless fosdick as abners ideel hero the 1946 lena the hyena contest in which a hideous lower slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry as judged by frank sinatra boris karloff and salvador dali drawn by noted cartoonist basil wolverton and an illfated sunday parody of gone with the wind that aroused anger and legal threats from author margaret mitchell and led to a printed apology within the strip  in october 1947 lil abner met rockwell p squeezeblood head of the abusive and corrupt squeezeblood comic strip syndicate the resulting sequence jack jawbreaker fights crime was a devastating satire of jerry siegel and joe shusters notorious exploitation by dc comics over superman it was later reprinted in the world of lil abner 1953  siegel and shuster had earlier poked fun at capp in a superman story in action comics 55 december 1942 in which a cartoonist named al hatt invents a comic strip featuring the hillbilly tiny rufe in 1947 capp earned a newsweek cover story  that same year the new yorkers profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues  in 1948 capp reached a creative peak with the introduction of the shmoos lovable and innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that ironically the world economy was endangered the muchcopied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the cold war following his close friend milton caniffs lead with steve canyon capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the shmoos debuted  as a result he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected and almost unprecedented merchandising phenomenon that followed  as in the strip shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950including a time cover story and a paperback collection of the original sequence the life and times of the shmoo became a bestseller for simon  schuster shmoo dolls clocks watches jewelry earmuffs wallpaper fishing lures air fresheners soap ice cream balloons ashtrays comic books records sheet music toys games halloween masks salt and pepper shakers decals pinbacks tumblers coin banks greeting cards planters neckties suspenders belts curtains fountain pens and other shmoo paraphernalia were produced a garment factory in baltimore turned out a whole line of shmoo apparel including shmooveralls the original sequence and its 1959 sequel the return of the shmoo have been collected in print many times since most recently in 2002 always to high sales figures the shmoos would later have their own animated tv series capp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters including the aboriginal and masochistic kigmies who craved abuse a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression the dreaded nogoodniks or bad shmoos and the irresistible bald iggle a guileless creature whose sadeyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulnesswith predictably disastrous results capp was also an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the national cartoonists society by admitting women cartoonists the ncs disallowed female members prior to 1949  according to tom roberts author of alex raymond his life and art 2007 al capp delivered a stirring speech that was instrumental in changing that rule the society finally accepted female members the following year  in december 1952 capp published an article in real magazine titled the real powers in america that further challenged the conventional attitudes of the day  the real powers in america are womenthe wives and sweethearts behind the masculine dummies highlights of the 1950s included the muchheralded marriage of abner and daisy mae in 1952 the birth of their son honest abe yokum in 1953 and in 1954 the introduction of abners enormous long lost kid brother tiny yokum who filled abners place as a bachelor in the annual sadie hawkins day race  in 1952 capp and his characters graced the covers of both life and tv guide 1956 saw the debut of the bald iggle considered by some abner enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip as well as mammys revelatory encounter with the square eyes familycapps thinly veiled appeal for racial tolerance  this fablelike story was collected into an educational comic book called mammy yokum and the great dogpatch mystery and distributed by the antidefamation league of bnai brith later that year capp had often parodied corporate greedpork tycoon j roaringham fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the shmoos but in 1952 when general motors president charles e wilson nominated for a cabinet post told congresswhat was good for the country was good for general motors and vice versa he inspired one of capps greatest satiresthe introduction of general bullmoose the robust ruthless and ageless business tycoon the blustering bullmoose who seemed to own and control nearly everything justified his farreaching and mercenary excesses by saying whats good for general bullmoose is good for everybody  bullmooses corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic lower slobbovians in a classic mismatch of haves versus havenots  this character along with the shmoos helped cement capps favor with the left and would increase their outrage a decade later when capp a former franklin d roosevelt liberal switched targets  nonetheless general bullmoose continued to appear undaunted and unredeemed during the strips final rightwing phase and into the 1970s after capp quit his ghosting job on ham fishers joe palooka in 1934 to launch his own strip fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors claiming that capp had stolen his idea  for years fisher would bring the characters back to his strip billing them as the original hillbilly characters and advising readers not to be fooled by imitations  in fact fishers brutish hillbilly characterbig leviticus created by capp in fishers absencebore little resemblance to lil abner according to a november 1950 time article capp parted from fisher with a definite impression to put it mildly that he had been underpaid and unappreciated  fisher a man of roman self esteem considered capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror  the cappfisher feud was wellknown in cartooning circles and it grew more personal as capps strip eclipsed joe palooka in popularity  fisher hired away capps top assistant moe leff after fisher underwent plastic surgery capp included a racehorse in lil abner named hams nosebob in 1950 capp introduced a cartoonist character named happy vermina caricature of fisherwho hired abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet after sacking his previous temporary assistant of 20 years who had been cut off from all his friends in the process instead of using vermins tired characters abner inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies a bighearted vermin told his slaving assistant  im proud of having created these characters  theyll make millions for me  and if they doill get you a new light bulb traveling in the same social circles the two men engaged in a 20year mutual vendetta as described by the daily news in 1998  they crossed paths often in the midtown watering holes and at national cartoonists society banquets and the citys gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks  in 1950 capp wrote a nasty article for the atlantic entitled i remember monster the article recounted capps days working for an unnamed benefactor with a miserly swinish personality whom capp claimed was a neverending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip the thinly veiled boss was understood to be ham fisher fisher retaliated clumsily doctoring photostats of lil abner and falsely accusing capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip  fisher submitted examples of lil abner to capps syndicate and to the new york courts in which fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art  however the xrated material had actually been drawn there by fisher himself  capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork in 1954 when capp was applying for a boston television license the federal communications commission fcc received an anonymous packet of pornographic lil abner drawings the national cartoonists society ncs convened an ethics hearing and fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found fishers scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion  around the same time his mansion in wisconsin was destroyed by a noreaster  on december 27 1955 fisher committed suicide in his studio the feud and fishers suicide were used as the basis for a lurid highly fictional murder mystery strip for murder by max allan collins another feud seemed to be looming when in one run of sunday strips in 1957 capp lampooned the comic strip mary worth as mary worm the title character was depicted as a nosy interfering busybody  allen saunders the creator of the mary worth strip returned capps fire with the introduction of the character hal rapp a foultempered illmannered and ironically inebriated cartoonist capp was a teetotaler  later it was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that capp and his longtime pal saunders had cooked up together the cappsaunders feud fooled both editors and readers generated plenty of free publicity for both stripsand capp and saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed volatile contentious cynical sarcastic contradictory iconoclastic misanthropic curmudgeonly controversial and sardonically funny  according to capps longtime friend milton caniff capp was charming when he chose to be but added that he could be very difficult if he didnt like you  frank frazetta described capp as exasperating infuriating domineering obnoxious loud lots of fun acidic and lovable  frazettas freewheeling description typifies the many conflicting firsthand accounts of capps complex personality he could be a real sob sometimes  other times he was a lot of fun to be around he was a brilliant guybut a little screwed up frazetta has said from the comic art of frank frazetta 2008  capps persona has long since eclipsed his work complicating critical analysis and objective assessment of lil abner to this day capp is often associated with two other giants of the medium  milton caniff terry and the pirates steve canyon and walt kelly pogo the three cartoonists were close personal friends and professional associates throughout their adult lives and occasionally referenced each other in their strips  according to one anecdote from al capp remembered 1994 capp and his brother elliot ducked out of a dull party at capps homeleaving walt kelly alone to fend for himself entertaining a group of argentine envoys who didnt speak english kelly retaliated by giving away capps baby grand piano  according to capp who loved to relate the story kellys two perfectly logical reasons for doing so were a to cement diplomatic relations between argentina and the united states and b  because you cant play the piano anyway  beetle bailey creator mort walker confirmed the story relating a slightly expanded version in his autobiography mort walkers private scrapbook 2001 milton caniff offered another anecdote from phi beta pogo 1989 involving capp and walt kelly two boys from bridgeport connecticut nose to nose onstage at a meeting of the newspaper comics council in the sixties  walt would say to al of course al this is really how you should draw daisy mae im only showing you this for your own good  then walt would do a sketch  capp of course got ticked off by this as you can imagine  so he retaliated by doing his version of pogo unfortunately the drawings are long gone no recording was made  what a shame  nobody anticipated thered be this dueling back and forth between the two of them like many cartoonists capp made extensive use of assistants notably andy amato harvey curtis walter johnson and frank frazetta during the extended peak of the strip the workload grew to include advertising merchandising promotional work public service comics and other specialty workin addition to the regular six dailies and one sunday strip per week  from the early 1940s to the late 1950s there were scores of sunday stripstyle magazine ads for cream of wheat using the abner characters and in the 1950s fearless fosdick became a spokesman for wildroot creamoil hair tonic in a series of daily stripstyle print ads the characters also sold chainsaws underwear ties detergent candy soft drinksincluding a licensed version of capps moonshine creation kickapoo joy juiceand general electric and procter  gamble products all requiring special artwork no matter how much help he had capp insisted on drawing and inking the characters faces and handsespecially of abner and daisy maehimself and his distinctive touch is often discernible he had the touch frazetta said of capp in 2008  he knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop  ill never knock his talent as is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips his name was the only one credited although sensitive to his own experience working on joe palooka capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces a 1950 cover story in time even included photos of two of his employees whose roles in the production were detailed by capp ironically this highly irregular policy along with the subsequent fame of frank frazetta has led to the misconception that his strip was ghosted by other hands the production of lil abner has been well documented however  in point of fact capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip  capp himself originated the stories wrote the dialogue designed the major characters rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel oversaw the finished pencils and drew and inked the hands and faces of the characters  frazetta authority david winiewicz described the everyday working mode of operation in lil abner dailies 1954 volume 20 kitchen sink 1994 there was also a separate line of comic book titles published by the caplin familyowned toby press including shmoo comics featuring washable jones cartoonist mell lazarus creator of miss peach and momma wrote a comic novel in 1963 titled the boss is crazy too which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with capp and his brother elliot at toby in a seminar at the charles schulz museum on november 8 2008 lazarus called his experience at toby the five funniest years of my life  lazarus went on to cite capp as one of the four essentials in the field of newspaper cartoonists along with walt kelly charles schulz and milton caniff capp detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the famous artists school beginning in 1956  in 1959 capp recorded and released an album for folkways records now owned by the smithsonian on which he identified and described the mechanics of the comic strip frazetta later famous as a fantasy artist assisted on the strip from 1954 to december 1961  fascinated by frazettas abilities capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence about a biker named frankie a caricature of frazetta to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail particularly to the inking  after editors complained about the stylistic changes the strips previous look was restored  during most of his tenure with capp frazettas primary responsibilityalong with various specialty art such as a series of lil abner greeting cardswas tightpenciling the sunday pages from studio roughs  this work was collected by dark horse comics in a fourvolume hardcover series entitled al capps lil abner the frazetta years in 1961 capp complaining of declining revenue wanted to have frazetta continue with a 50 pay cut capp said he would cut the salary in half  goodbye that was that  i said goodbye  frazetta painting with fire however frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called lil abner and the creatures from dropouter space distributed by the job corps in 1965 in the golden age of the american comic strip successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention their professional and private lives were reported in the press and their celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations  as lil abner reached its peak years and following the success of the shmoos and other high moments in his work al capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip  capp was the best known most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era writes publisher and leading shmoo collector denis kitchen his personal celebrity transcended comics reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media  for many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip a weekly syndicated newspaper column and a 500station radio program he ran the boston summer theatre with phantom cartoonist lee falk bringing in hollywood actors such as mae west melvyn douglas and claude rains to star in their live productions he even briefly considered running for a massachusetts senate seat  vice president spiro agnew urged capp to run in the democratic party massachusetts primary in 1970 against ted kennedy but capp ultimately declined he did however donate his services as a speaker at a 100aplate fundraiser for republican congressman jack kemp besides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor capp was a popular speaker at universities and on television he remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by tv no other comic artist to date has come close to capps televised exposure  capp appeared as a regular on the author meets the critics 194854 and made regular weekly appearances on the today show in 1953  he was also a periodic panelist on abc and nbcs who said that 194855 and cohosted dumonts whats the story 1953  between 1952 and 1972 he hosted at least five television showsthree different talk shows called the al capp show 1952 and 1968 and al capp 197172 al capps america a live chalk talk with capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons 1954 and a cbs game show called anyone can win 1953  he also hosted similar vehicles on the radioand was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs including the longrunning nbc radio series monitor his frequent appearances on nbcs the tonight show spanned three emcees steve allen jack paar and johnny carson from the 1950s to the 1970s  one memorable story as recounted to johnny carson was about his meeting with thenpresident dwight d eisenhower as he was ushered into the oval office his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor the president immediately turned to an aide and said call walter reed hospital or maybe bethesda to which capp replied hell no just call a good local mechanic  capp also spoofed carson in his strip in a 1970 episode called the tommy wholesome show capp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the bob hope film that certain feeling for which he also provided promotional art he was interviewed live on person to person on 27 november 1959 by host charles collingwood he also appeared as himself on the ed sullivan show sid caesars your show of shows the red skelton show the merv griffin show the mike douglas show and guested on ralph edwards this is your life on february 12 1961 with honoree peter palmer capp also freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist in a wide variety of publications including life show pageant the atlantic esquire coronet and the saturday evening post capp was impersonated by comedians rich little and david frye although capps endorsement activities never rivaled lil abners or fearless fosdicks he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for sheaffer snorkel fountain pens along with colleagues and close friends milton caniff and walt kelly andwith an irony that would become apparent latera brand of cigarettes chesterfield capp would resume visiting war amputees during the conflicts in korea and vietnam he toured vietnam with the uso entertaining troops along with art buchwald and george plimpton he served as chairman of the cartoonists committee in president dwight d eisenhowers peopletopeople program in 1954 although capp had actually supported adlai stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956 which was organized to promote savings bonds for the us treasury capp had earlier provided the shmoo for a special childrens savings bond in 1949 accompanying president harry s truman at the bonds unveiling ceremony  during the soviet unions blockade of west berlin in 1948 the commanders of the berlin airlift had cabled capp requesting inflatable shmoos as part of operation little vittles candyfilled shmoos were airdropped to hungry west berliners by americas 17th military airport squadron during the humanitarian effort  when the candychocked shmoos were dropped a nearriot resulted reported in newsweekoctober 11 1948 in addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for the handicapped capp also served on the national reading council which was organized to combat illiteracy he published a column wrong turn onto sesame street challenging federally funded public television endowments in favor of educational comicswhich according to capp didnt cost a dime in taxes and never had i pointed out that a kid could enjoy sesame street without learning how to read but he couldnt enjoy comic strips unless he could read and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such reading form might make better sense in august 1967 capp was the narrator and host of a network special called do blonds have more fun in 1970 he was the subject of a provocative nbc documentary called this is al capp capp was the playboy interview subject in the december 1965 issue of that magazine capp who by all accounts was contrary and contentious by nature was a maverick politically  characteristically he went against the grain he was a liberal during the conservative 1950s only to switch to conservative during the liberal hippieera 1960s capp and his family lived in cambridge massachusetts near harvard during the entire vietnam protest era the turmoil that americans were watching on their tv sets was happening liveright in his own neighborhood  campus radicals and hippies inevitably became one of capps favorite targets in the sixties  alongside his longestablished caricatures of rightwing big business types such as general bullmoose and j roaringham fatback capp began spoofing counterculture icons such as joan baez in the character of joanie phoanie a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage ten thousand dollars worth of protest songs the sequence implicitly labeled baez a limousine liberal a charge she took to heart as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography and a voice to sing with a memoir another target was senator ted kennedy parodied as senator o noble mcgesture resident of hyideelsport the town name is a play on hyannisport massachusetts where a number of the kennedy clan have lived capp became a popular public speaker on college campuses where he reportedly relished hecklers he attacked militant antiwar demonstrators both in his personal appearances and in his strip he also satirized student political groups the youth international party yip and students for a democratic society sds emerged in lil abner as students wildly indignant about nearly everything swine in an april 1969 letter to time capp insisted the students i blast are not the dissenters but the destroyersthe less than 4 who lock up deans in washrooms who burn manuscripts of unpublished books who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities the remaining 96 detest them as heartily as i do capps increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during tv appearances cost him his semiregular spot on the tonight show his contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy lp called al capp on campus the album features his interaction with students at fresno state college now california state university fresno on such topics as sensitivity training humanitarianism abstract art capp hated it and of course student protest the cover features a cartoon drawing by capp of wildly dressed angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like end capp brutality abner and daisy mae smoke pot capp is over 30 40 50all crossed out the hill and if you like crap youll like capp highlights of the strips final decades include boomchik 1961 in which americas international prestige is saved by mammy yokum daisy mae steps out 1966 a femaleempowering tale of daisys brazenly audacious homewrecker gland the lips of marcia perkins 1967 a satirical thinlyveiled commentary on venereal disease and public health warnings ignoble savages 1968 in which the mob takes over harvard and corporal crock 1973 in which bullmoose reveals his reactionary cartoon role model in a tale of obsession and the fanatical world of comic book collecting the cartoonist visited john lennon and yoko ono at their bedin for peace and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film imagine and more extensively in the subsequently released bedin film  introducing himself with the words im a dreadful neanderthal fascist  how do you do capp sardonically congratulated lennon and ono on their two virgins nude album cover  i think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair  youve done it and i tell you that i applaud you for it  following this exchange capp insulted ono good god youve gotta live with that and is asked to get out by derek taylor lennon allowed him to stay however but the conversation had soured considerably  on capps exit lennon sang an impromptu version of his the ballad of john and yoko song with a slightly revised but nonetheless prophetic lyric  christ you know it aint easy  you know how hard it can be  the way things are going  theyre gonna crucify capp  according to an apocryphal tale from this era in a televised faceoff either capp on the dick cavett show or more commonly conservative talk show host joe pyne on his own show is supposed to have taunted iconoclastic musician frank zappa about his long hair asking zappa if he thought he was a girl  zappa is said to have replied you have a wooden leg does that make you a table  both capp and pyne had wooden legs the story is considered an urban legend in 1968 a theme park called dogpatch usa opened at marble falls arkansas based on capps work and with his support the park was a popular attraction during the 1970s but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties  as of late 2005 the area once devoted to a liveaction facsimile of dogpatch including a lifesize statue in the town square of dogpatch founder general jubilation t cornpone has been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters and is today slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding arkansas wilderness in 1971 syndicated columnists jack anderson and brit hume published an article alleging instances of sexual harassment by al capp of students on his lecture tour  capp soon became involved in a scandal after allegedly propositioning a married student from the university of wisconsinmadison in capps eau claire hotel room  after being charged in the incident capp pleaded nolo contendere to attempted adultery adultery was and as of 2008 still is considered a felony in wisconsin and was fined 500  the resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip and capp already in failing health withdrew from public speaking years later on inside the actors studio goldie hawn claimed that capp had sexually propositioned her during her auditions for the 1964 new york worlds fair other actresses who have made similar allegations include grace kelly unsubstantiated and edie adams  capps final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy with the unexpected deaths of one of his two daughters and a beloved granddaughter a lifelong chain smoker capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in south hampton new hampshire capp is buried in mount prospect cemetery in amesbury massachusetts engraved on his headstone is a stanza from thomas gray the plowman homeward plods his weary way  and leaves the world to darkness and to me from elegy written in a country churchyard 1751 neither the strips shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic and in 1995 lil abner was recognized as such by the united states postal service lil abner was one of 20 classic american comic strips honored with a usps commemorative postage stamp  al capp an inductee into the national cartoon museum formerly the international museum of cartoon art is one of only 31 artists selected to their hall of fame capp was also inducted into the will eisner award hall of fame in 2004 sadie hawkins day and double whammy are two terms attributed to al capp that have entered the english language  other less ubiquitous cappisms include skunk works and lower slobbovia the term shmoo has also entered the lexicon defining highly technical concepts in no less than four separate fields of science including the variations shmooing a microbiological term for the budding process in yeast reproduction and shmoo plot a technical term in the field of electrical engineering  in socioeconomics a shmoo refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself as opposed to widgets which require resources and active production in the field of particle physics shmoo refers to a high energy survey instrument as utilized at the los alamos national laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the cygnus x3 constellation  capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms such as druthers schmooze and nogoodnik neatnik etc  in his book the american language hl mencken credits the postwar mania for adding nik to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginningnot with beatnik or sputnikbut earlier in the pages of lil abner al capps life and career are the subjects of a new lifesized mural commemorating his 100th birthday unveiled in downtown amesbury on may 15 2010  according to the boston globe as reported on may 18 2010 the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artists honor and is looking to develop an al capp museum capp is also the subject of an upcoming wnettv american masters documentary the life and times of al capp produced by his granddaughter independent filmmaker caitlin manning since his death in 1979 al capp and his work have been the subject of close to 40 books including three biographies  underground cartoonist and lil abner expert denis kitchen has published copublished edited or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them  kitchen is currently compiling a monograph on al capp at the san diego comic con in july 2009 idw announced the upcoming publication of al capps lil abner the complete dailies and color sundays as part of their ongoing library of american comics project the comprehensive series a reprinting of the entire 43year history of lil abner spanning a projected 21 volumes began on april 7 2010 
altair altair rotates rapidly with a velocity at the equator of approximately 286 kms  other interferometric studies with multiple telescopes operating in the infrared have imaged and confirmed this phenomenon altair is located 168 lightyears 514 parsecs from earth and is one of the closest stars visible to the naked eye  along with beta aquilae and gamma aquilae it forms the wellknown line of stars sometimes referred to as the family of aquila or shaft of aquila altair is a typea main sequence star with approximately 18 times the mass of the sun and 11 times its luminosity satellite measurements made in 1999 with the widefield infrared explorer showed that the brightness of altair fluctuates slightly varying by less than a thousandth of a magnitude  as a result it was identified in 2005 as a  scuti variable star  its light curve can be approximated by adding together a number of sine waves with periods that range between 08 and 15 hours the angular diameter of altair was measured interferometrically by r hanbury brown and his coworkers at narrabri observatory in the 1960s they found a diameter of 3 milliarcseconds  although hanbury brown et al realized that altair would be rotationally flattened they had insufficient data to experimentally observe its oblateness   altair was later observed to be flattened by infrared interferometric measurements made by the palomar testbed interferometer in 1999 and 2000  this work was published by g t van belle and his coauthors in 2001 theory predicts that owing to altairs rapid rotation its surface gravity and effective temperature should be lower at the equator making the equator less luminous than the poles   this phenomenon known as gravity darkening or the von zeipel effect was confirmed for altair by measurements made by the navy prototype optical interferometer in 2001 and analyzed by ohishi et al 2004 and peterson et al 2006  also a domiciano de souza et al 2005 verified gravity darkening using the measurements made by the palomar and navy interferometers together with new measurements made by the vinci instrument at the vlti altair is one of the few stars for which a direct image has been obtained  in 2006 and 2007 j d monnier and his coworkers produced an image of altairs surface from 2006 infrared observations made with the mirc instrument on the chara array interferometer this was the first time the surface of any mainsequence star apart from the sun had been imaged the name altair has been used since medieval times it is an abbreviation of the arabic phrase   annasr air the flying eagle the term al nesr al tair was appeared in al achsasi al mouakket catalogue which  was translated into latin as vulture volans in chinese the asterism consisting of   and  aquilae is known as  h g river drum however it is better known by its other names  qin ni xng or   ni lng xng or in english star of the cowherd these names are from the love story of  q x in which ni lng and his two children  and  aquilae are separated from their mother  zh n weaver girl  the star vega by the milky way they are only permitted to meet once a year when the milky way is crossed by a bridge of magpies the japanese  festival in which altair is known as  is based on this legend japan airlines starjet 777200 ja8983 was named altair ratchet altair a supporting character in the rpg sakura wars v is named for a theme that all the supporting females in the troupe are named after celestial bodies in astrology the star altair was illomened portending danger from reptiles the nasa constellation program announced altair as the name of the lunar surface access module lsam on december 13 2007  the russianmade beriev be200 altair seaplane is also named after the star in the movie forbidden planet united planets cruiser c57d is sent to altairs fourth planet to investigate the disappearance of a colony expedition the altair 8800 was one of the first microcomputers intended for home use the first protagonist of the video game series assassins creed is named altar ibnlaahad altair is used for name of three united states navy ship    and  the atype main sequence star has the multiple star designation wds195080852a and has three visual companion stars wds195080852b c and d component b is not physically close to a but merely appears close to it in the sky united states naval observatory  accessed on line november 25 2008 
aim7sparrow the aim7 sparrow is an americanmade mediumrange semiactive radar homing airtoair missile operated by the united states air force united states navy and united states marine corps as well as various allied air forces and navies  sparrow and its derivatives were the wests principal beyond visual range bvr airtoair missile from the late 1950s until the 1990s it remains in service although it is being phased out in aviation applications in favor of the more advanced aim120 amraam the armed forces of japan employ the sparrow missile though it is being phased out and replaced by the mitsubishi aam4  nato pilots use the brevity code fox one in radio communication to signal launch of a semiactive radar homing missile such as the sparrow the sparrow was used as the basis for a surfacetoair missile the rim7 sea sparrow which is used by the united states navy for air defense of its ships after a protracted development cycle the initial aamn2 sparrow entered service in 1956 carried by the f3h2m demon and f7u cutlass fighter aircraft  compared to the modern versions the sparrow i was more streamlined and featured a bulletshaped airframe with a long pointed nose sparrow i was a limited and rather primitive weapon the limitations of beamriding guidance which was slaved to an optical sight requiring visual identification of the target restricted the missile to visualrange attacks and made it essentially useless against a maneuvering target  only about 2000 rounds were produced to this standard as early as 1950 douglas examined equipping the sparrow with an active radar seeker initially known as xaamn2a sparrow ii the original retroactively becoming sparrow i in 1952 it was given the new code aamn3  the active radar made the sparrow ii a fire and forget weapon allowing several to be fired at separate targets at the same time by 1955 douglas proposed going ahead with development intending it to be the primary weapon for the f5d skylancer interceptor it was later selected with some controversy to be the primary weapon for the canadian avro arrow supersonic interceptor along with the new astra firecontrol system  for canadian use and as a second source for us missiles canadair was selected to build the missiles in quebec however the small size of the missile forebody and the kband anapq64radar limited performance and it was never able to work in testing  after considerable development and test firings in the us and canada douglas abandoned development in 1956  canadair continued development until the arrow was cancelled in 1958 a subvariant of the sparrow i armed with the same nuclear warhead as the mb1 genie was proposed in 1958 but was cancelled shortly thereafter concurrently with the development of the sparrow i in 1951 raytheon began work on the semiactive radar homing version of sparrow family of missiles the aamn6 sparrow iii the first of these weapons entered united states navy service in 1958 the aamn6a was similar to the 6 but used a new thiokol liquidfuel rocket engine for improved performance it also included changes to the guidance electronics to make it effective at higher closing speeds the 6a was also selected to arm the air forces f110a spectref4 phantom fighters in 1962 known to them as the aim101  it entered production in 1959 with 7500 being built another upgrade reverted to a rocketdyne solidfuel motor for the aamn6b which started production in 1963  the new motor significantly increased maximum range to convert35 for headon attacks during this year the navy and air force agreed on standardized naming conventions for their missiles the sparrows became the aim7 series the original sparrow i and aborted sparrow ii became the aim7a and aim7b despite both being out of service the 6 6a and 6b became the aim7c aim7d and aim7e respectively in 1969 an improved version the e2 was introduced with clipped wings and various changes to the fusing  considered a dogfight sparrow the aim7e2 was intended to be used at shorter ranges where the missile was still travelling at high speeds and in the headon aspect making it much more useful in the visual limitations imposed on the engagements  even so its kill rate was only 13 in actual combat in 1972 leading to a practice of ripplefiring all four at once in hopes of increasing kill probability  its worst tendency was that of detonating prematurely approximately a thousand feet in front of the launching aircraft but it also had many motor failures erratic flights and fusing problems an e3 version included additional changes to the fusing and an e4 featured a modified seeker for use with the f14 tomcat improved versions of the aim7 were developed in the 1970s in an attempt to address the weapons limitations the aim7f which entered service in 1976 had a dualstage rocket motor for longer range solidstate electronics for greatly improved reliability and a larger warhead  even this version had room for improvement leading british aerospace and the italian firm selenia to develop advanced versions of sparrow with better performance and improved electronics as the skyflash and selenia aspide respectively the most common version of the sparrow today the aim7m entered service in 1982 and featured a new inverse monopulse seeker matching the capabilities of skyflash active radar fuse digital controls improved ecm resistance and better lowaltitude performance it was used to good advantage in the 1991 gulf war where it scored many usaf airtoair kills however its kill probability overall is still less than 40 the aim7p is similar in most ways to the m versions and was primarily an upgrade program for existing mseries missiles the main changes were to the software improving lowlevel performance a followon block ii upgrade added a new rear receiver allowing the missile to receive midcourse correction from the launching aircraft  plans initially called for all m versions to be upgraded but currently ps are being issued as required to replace ms lost or removed from the inventory the final version of the missile was to have been the aim7r which added an infrared seeker to an otherwise unchanged aim7p block ii a general winddown of the budget led to it being cancelled in 1997 sparrow is now being phased out with the availability of the activeradar aim120 amraam but is likely to remain in service for a number of years as part of the avro arrow program canadair partnered with douglas in the development of the sparrow ii aim7b   after douglas dropped out of this program canadair continued on with it until the termination of the arrow the italian company finmeccanica alenia difesa licensed the aim7e sparrow technology from us and produced its own improved version called aspide british aerospace bae licensed the aim7e2 technology in the 1970s producing the skyflash missile  skyflash used a marconi xj521 monopulse semiactive seeker together with improvements to the electronics it was powered by the aerojet mk52 mod 2 rocket engine later by the rocketdyne mk38 mod 4  skyflash entered service with the royal air force raf on their phantom fg1fgr2 in 1976 and later on the tornado f3 the skyflash was also exported to sweden for use on their viggen fighters an upgraded version with active radar seeker called active sky flash was proposed by bae and thomsoncsf but did not receive funding because the raf opted for other missiles the ly60fd60pl10 is a family of prc missiles developed by the shanghai academy of science and technology largely based on the italian aspide missile  itself a version of the sparrow there are four versions of the basic design three of which are surfacetoair and one airtoair the sparrow has four major sections guidance section warhead control and rocket motor currently the hercules mk58 solidpropellant rocket motor it has a cylindrical body with four wings at midbody and four tail fins  although the external dimensions of the sparrow remained relatively unchanged from model to model the internal components of newer missiles represent major improvements with vastly increased capabilities the warhead is of the continuousrod type as with other semiactive radar guided missiles the missile does not generate radar signals but instead homes in on reflected continuouswave signals from the launch platforms radar the receiver also senses the guidance radar to enable comparisons that enhance the missiles resistance to passive jamming the launching aircraft will illuminate the target with its radar  in radars of the 1950s these were single target tracking devices using a nutating horn as part of its antenna  this caused the beam to be swept in a small cone  signal processing would be applied to determine the direction of maximum illumination and so develop a signal to steer the antenna toward the target the missile detects the reflected signal from the target with a high gain antenna in a similar fashion and steers the entire missile toward closure with the target the missile guidance also samples a portion of the illuminating signal via rearward pointing waveguides the comparison of these two signals enabled logic circuits to determine the true target reflection signal even if the target were to eject radarreflecting chaff 
albertfrederickdukeofprussia albrecht friedrich was married in 1573 to marie eleonore of cleves a daughter of wilhelm duke of jlichclevesberg and archduchess maria of austria 15311581  maria was a daughter of ferdinand i holy roman emperor and anna of bohemia and hungary albert frederick and marie were parents to seven children at his death the duchy passed to his soninlaw john sigismund margrave of brandenburg combining the two territories under a single dynasty and forming brandenburgprussia 
beer the strength of beer is usually around 4 to 6 alcohol by volume abv though may range from less than 1 abv to over 20 abv in rare cases beer forms part of the culture of beerdrinking nations and is associated with social traditions such as beer festivals as well as a rich pub culture involving activities like pub crawling and pub games such as bar billiards beer is one of the worlds oldest prepared beverages possibly dating back to the early neolithic or 9500 bc when cereal was first farmed and is recorded in the written history of ancient egypt and mesopotamia archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations the earliest known chemical evidence of beer dates to circa 35003100 bc from the site of godin tepe in the zagros mountains of western iran some of the earliest sumerian writings found in the region contain references to a type of beer one such example a prayer to the goddess ninkasi known as the hymn to ninkasi served as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people a beer made from rice which unlike sake didnt use the amylolytic process and was probably prepared for fermentation by mastication or malting as almost any substance containing carbohydrates mainly sugars or starch can naturally undergo fermentation it is likely that beerlike beverages were independently invented among various cultures throughout the world the invention of bread and beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology and build civilization beer was spread through europe by germanic and celtic tribes as far back as 3000 bc in 1516 william iv duke of bavaria adopted the reinheitsgebot purity law perhaps the oldest foodquality regulation still in use through the 20th century according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water hops and barleymalt  beer produced before the industrial revolution continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale although by the 7th century ad beer was also being produced and sold by european monasteries  during the industrial revolution the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results today the brewing industry is a global business consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries  as of 2006 more than 133 billion liters 35 billion gallons the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side of beer are sold per year producing total global revenues of 2945 billion 1477 billion the process of making beer is known as brewing a dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery though beer can be made in the home and has been for much of its history a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company  beer made on a domestic scale for noncommercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made though most homebrewed beer is made in the home  brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries which from the late 19th century largely restricted brewing to a commercial operation only  however the uk government relaxed legislation in 1963 followed by australia in 1972 and the usa in 1979 allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby the purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called wort and to convert the wort into the alcoholic beverage known as beer in a fermentation process effected by yeast the first step where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source normally malted barley with hot water is known as mashing  hot water known as liquor in brewing terms is mixed with crushed malt or malts known as  grist in a mash tun the sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle or copper so called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper and boiled usually for about one hour  during boiling water in the wort evaporates but the sugars and other components of the wort remain this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer  boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage  hops are added during boiling as a source of bitterness flavour and aroma  hops may be added at more than one point during the boil the longer the hops are boiled the more bitterness they contribute but the less hop flavour and aroma remains in the beer after boiling the hopped wort is now cooled ready for the yeast  in some breweries the hopped wort may pass through a hopback which is a small vat filled with hops to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter where the yeast is added  during fermentation the wort becomes beer in a process which requires a week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer  in addition to producing alcohol fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during fermentation  once fermentation is complete the yeast also settles leaving the beer clear fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages primary and secondary  once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation  secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity   when the beer has fermented it is packaged either into casks for cask ale or kegs aluminium cans or bottles for other sorts of beer the basic ingredients of beer are water a starch source such as malted barley able to be fermented converted into alcohol a brewers yeast to produce the fermentation and a flavouring such as hops a mixture of starch sources may be used with a secondary starch source such as maize corn rice or sugar often being termed an adjunct especially when used as a lowercost substitute for malted barley  less widely used starch sources include millet sorghum and cassava root in africa potato in brazil and agave in mexico among others the amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill beer is composed mostly of water  regions have water with different mineral components as a result different regions were originally better suited to making certain types of beer thus giving them a regional character the waters of burton in england contain gypsum which benefits making pale ale to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as burtonisation the starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer the most common starch source used in beer is malted grain  grain is malted by soaking it in water allowing it to begin germination and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln  malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars  different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain  darker malts will produce darker beers nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch  this is because of its fibrous husk which is not only important in the sparging stage of brewing in which water is washed over the mashed barley grains to form the wort but also as a rich source of amylase a digestive enzyme which facilitates conversion of starch into sugars  other malted and unmalted grains including wheat rice oats and rye and less frequently corn and sorghum may be used  in recent years a few brewers have produced glutenfree beer made with sorghum with no barley malt for those who cannot consume glutencontaining grains like wheat barley and rye flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of hops the flower of the hop vine is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today the flowers themselves are often called hops hops were used by monastery breweries such as corvey in westphalia germany from ad 822 though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century some beers today such as fraoch by the scottish heather ales company and cervoise lancelot by the french brasserielancelot company use plants other than hops for flavouring hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer  hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt the bitterness of beers is measured on the international bitterness units scale  hops contribute floral citrus and herbal aromas and flavours to beer  hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewers yeast over less desirable microorganisms and hops aids in head retention the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last the acidity of hops is a preservative yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer  yeast metabolises the sugars extracted from grains which produces alcohol and carbon dioxide and thereby turns wort into beer  in addition to fermenting the beer yeast influences the character and flavour the dominant types of yeast used to make beer are the topfermenting saccharomyces cerevisiae and bottomfermenting saccharomyces uvarum isbn 0471429929 brettanomyces ferments lambics isbn 0854045686 and torulaspora delbrueckii ferments bavarian weissbier before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts a few styles such as lambics rely on this method today but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast cultures isbn 0471185701 some brewers add one or more clarifying agents to beer which typically precipitate collect as a solid out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product  this process makes the beer appear bright and clean rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers examples of clarifying agents include isinglass obtained from swimbladders of fish irish moss a seaweed kappa carrageenan from the seaweed kappaphycus cottonii polyclar artificial and gelatin if a beer is marked suitable for vegans it was clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents labelling consultation responses pp71 5 october 2005 retrieved 29 september 2008 the brewing industry is a global business consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries a microbrewery or craft brewery is a modern brewery which produces a limited amount of beer the maximum amount of beer a brewery can produce and still be classed as a microbrewery varies by region and by authority though is usually around 15000 barrels 18000 hectolitres 475000 us gallons a year a brewpub is a type of microbrewery that incorporates a pub or other eating establishment sabmiller became the largest brewing company in the world when it acquired royal grolsch brewer of dutch premium beer brand grolsch inbev was the secondlargest beerproducing company in the world and anheuserbusch held the third spot but after the merger between inbev and anheuserbusch the new anheuserbusch inbev company is the largest brewer in the world brewing at home is subject to regulation and prohibition in many countries  restrictions on homebrewing were lifted in the uk in 1963 australia followed suit in 1972 and the usa in 1978 though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production while there are many types of beer brewed the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries the traditional european brewing regionsgermany belgium the united kingdom ireland poland the czech republic scandinavia the netherlands and austriahave local varieties of beer  in some countries notably the usa canada and australia brewers have adapted european styles to such an extent that they have effectively created their own indigenous types michael jackson in his 1977 book the world guide to beer categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names   fred eckhardt furthered jacksons work in the essentials of beer style in 1989 topfermented beers are most commonly produced with saccharomyces cerevisiae which clumps and rises to the surface typically between 15 and 24c 60 and 75f  at these temperatures yeast produces significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products and the result is often a beer with slightly fruity compounds resembling apple pear pineapple banana plum or prune among others before the introduction of hops into england from the netherlands in the 15th century the name ale was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages the term beer being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops the word ale may come from the old english ealu in turn from the protoindoeuropean base alut which holds connotations of sorcery magic possession intoxication real ale is the term coined by the campaign for real ale camra in 1973 for beer brewed from traditional ingredients matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is dispensed and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide it is applied to bottle conditioned and cask conditioned beers pale ale is a beer which uses a topfermenting yeast and predominantly pale malt it is one of the worlds major beer styles stout and porter are dark beers made using roasted malts or roast barley and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast  there are a number of variations including baltic porter dry stout and imperial stout the name porter was first used in 1721 to describe a dark brown beer popular with the street and river porters of london this same beer later also became known as stout though the word stout had been used as early as 1677  the history and development of stout and porter are intertwined mild ale has a predominantly malty palate it is usually dark coloured with an abv of 3 to 36 although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6 abv and higher wheat beer is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of malted barley  wheat beers are usually topfermented in germany they have to be by law the flavour of wheat beers varies considerably depending upon the specific style lager is the english name for cool fermenting beers of central european origin  pale lagers are the most commonly consumed beers in the world the name lager comes from the german lagern for to store as brewers around bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months  these brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment and to also clear of sediment when stored in cool conditions lager yeast is a cool bottomfermenting yeast saccharomyces pastorianus and typically undergoes primary fermentation at convert7 the fermentation phase and then is given a long secondary fermentation at convert0 the lagering phase  during the secondary stage the lager clears and mellows the cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts resulting in a cleanertasting beer modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by gabriel sedlmayr the younger who perfected dark brown lagers at the spaten brewery in bavaria and anton dreher who began brewing a lager now known as vienna lager probably of amberred colour in vienna in 18401841  with improved modern yeast strains most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage typically 13 weeks lambic a beer of belgium is naturally fermented using wild yeasts rather than cultivated  many of these are not strains of brewers yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness  yeast varieties such as brettanomyces bruxellensis and brettanomyces lambicus are common in lambics  in addition other organisms such as lactobacillus bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness beer is measured and assessed by bitterness by strength and by colour the perceived bitterness is measured by the international bitterness units scale ibu defined in cooperation between the american society of brewing chemists and the european brewery convention beer colour is determined by the malt the most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts  pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried with coke  coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642 but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used in terms of sales volume most of todays beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of pilsen in the presentday czech republic the modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation fizzy bubbles and a typical alcohol by volume content of around 5  the pilsner urquell bitburger and heineken brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager as are the american brands budweiser coors and miller dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade  other colourantssuch as caramelare also widely used to darken beers  very dark beers such as stout use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer some have roasted unmalted barley isbn 0813819423 beer ranges from less than 3 alcohol by volume abv to around 14 abv though this strength can be increased to around 20 by repitching with champagne yeast the alcohol in beer comes primarily from the metabolism of sugars that are produced during fermentation the quantity of fermentable sugars in the wort and the variety of yeast used to ferment the wort are the primary factors that determine the amount of alcohol in the final beer  additional fermentable sugars are sometimes added to increase alcohol content and enzymes are often added to the wort for certain styles of beer primarily light beers to convert more complex carbohydrates starches to fermentable sugars  alcohol is a byproduct of yeast metabolism and is toxic to the yeast typical brewing yeast cannot survive at alcohol concentrations above 12 by volume  low temperatures and too little fermentation time decreases the effectiveness of yeasts and consequently decreases the alcohol content the strength of beers has climbed during the later years of the 20th century  vetter 33 a 105 abv 33 degrees plato hence vetter 33 doppelbock was listed in the 1994 guinness book of world records as the strongest beer at that time the product that is claimed to be the strongest beer made is the end of history a 55 belgian ale made by the scottish brewery brewdog in 2010 who also made sink the bismarck a 41 abv ipa and tactical nuclear penguin a 32 abv imperial stout these are made using the eisbock method of freeze distilling in which the brewery freeze distils a strong ale gradually removing the ice and freezing again until the beer reaches the strength required a process that may class the finished products as spirits rather than beer the german brewery schorschbrus schorschbocka 31 abv eisbock and hair of the dogs davea 29 abv barley wine made in 1994 both used the same freeze distilling method in the 1980s guinness introduced the beer widget a nitrogenpressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense tight head similar to beer served from a nitrogen system the words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers containing a beer widget or which are coldfiltered rather than pasteurised caskconditioned ales or cask ales are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers  these beers are termed real ale by the camra organisation  typically when a cask arrives in a pub it is placed horizontally on a frame called a stillage which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature typically between convert11 before being tapped and venteda tap is driven through a usually rubber bung at the bottom of one end and a hard spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask which is now uppermost the act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment so it must be left for a suitable period to drop clear again as well as to fully conditionthis period can take anywhere from several hours to several days  at this point the beer is ready to sell either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump or simply being gravityfed directly into the glass draught beers environmental impact can be 68 lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences most beers are cleared of yeast by filtering when packaged in bottles and cans   however bottle conditioned beers retain some yeasteither by being unfiltered or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast it is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle  however some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast this practice is customary with wheat beers  typically when serving a hefeweizen 90 of the contents are poured and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass  alternatively the bottle may be inverted prior to opening  glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers many beers are sold in cans though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries  in sweden in 2001 639 of beer was sold in cans  people either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass  cans protect the beer from light thereby preventing skunked beer and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles  cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer then became commonly associated with less expensive massproduced beers even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles  plastic pet bottles are used by some breweries the temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinkers experience warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing  most drinkers prefer pale lager to be served chilled a low or mediumstrength pale ale to be served cool while a strong barley wine or imperial stout to be served at room temperature beer writer michael jackson proposed a fivelevel scale for serving temperatures well chilled convert7 for light beers pale lagers chilled convert8 for berliner weisse and other wheat beers lightly chilled convert9 for all dark lagers altbier and german wheat beers cellar temperature convert13 for regular british ale stout and most belgian specialities and room temperature convert155 for strong dark ales especially trappist beer and barley wine drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial refrigeration and by the 1870s was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager  chilling beer makes it more refreshing though below convert155 the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness and reduces it significantly below convert10  beer served unchilledeither cool or at room temperature reveal more of their flavours  cask marque a nonprofit uk beer organisation has set a temperature standard range of 1214c 5357f for cask ales to be served beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels such as a glass a beer stein a mug a pewter tankard a beer bottle or a can the shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style  breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion as this increases sales the pouring process has an influence on a beers presentation the rate of flow from the tap or other serving vessel tilt of the glass and position of the pour in the centre or down the side into the glass all influence the end result such as the size and longevity of the head lacing the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk and turbulence of the beer and its release of carbonation in most societies beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking such as playing cards darts or other pub games attending beer festivals visiting a series of pubs in one evening joining an organisation such as camra visiting breweries beeroriented tourism or rating beer  drinking games such as beer pong are also popular beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies and is consumed in countries all over the world  there are breweries in middle eastern countries such as iran and syria and in african countries  sales of beer are four times those of wine which is the second most popular alcoholic beverage in russia beer consumption is on the rise because young people are choosing beer over vodka the main active ingredient of beer is alcohol and therefore the health effects of alcohol apply to beer the moderate consumption of alcohol including beer is associated with a decreased risk of cardiac disease stroke and cognitive decline the longterm effects of alcohol abuse however include the risk of developing alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease brewers yeast is known to be a rich source of nutrients therefore as expected beer can contain significant amounts of nutrients including magnesium selenium potassium phosphorus biotin and b vitamins in fact beer is sometimes referred to as liquid bread some sources maintain that filtered beer loses much of its nutrition a 2005 japanese study found that low alcohol beer may possess strong anticancer properties  another study found nonalcoholic beer to mirror the cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages  however much research suggests that the primary health benefit from alcoholic beverages comes from the alcohol they contain it is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a beer belly rather than beer consumption a recent study however found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly but with most overconsumption it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself around the world there are a number of traditional and ancient starchbased beverages classed as beer  in africa there are various ethnic beers made from sorghum or millet such as oshikundu in namibia and tella in ethiopia kyrgyzstan also has a beer made from millet it is a low alcohol somewhat porridgelike drink called bozo bhutan nepal tibet and sikkim also use millet in chhaang a popular semifermented ricemillet drink in the eastern himalayas further east in  china are found huangjiu and choujiutraditional ricebased beverages related to beer the andes in south america has chicha made from germinated maize corn while the indigenous peoples in brazil have cauim a traditional beverage made since precolumbian times by chewing manioc so that enzymes present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars this is similar to masato in peru some beers which are made from bread which is linked to the earliest forms of beer are sahti in finland kvass in russia and the ukraine and bouza in sudan 
blindness various scales have been developed to describe the extent of vision loss and define blindness  total blindness is the complete lack of form and visual light perception and is clinically recorded as nlp an abbreviation for no light perception in order to determine which people may need special assistance because of their visual disabilities various governmental jurisdictions have formulated more complex definitions referred to as legal blindness  in north america and most of europe legal blindness is defined as visual acuity vision of 20200 660 or less in the better eye with best correction possible  this means that a legally blind individual would have to stand convert20 from an object to see itwith corrective lenseswith the same degree of clarity as a normally sighted person could from convert200  in many areas people with average acuity who nonetheless have a visual field of less than 20 degrees the norm being 180 degrees are also classified as being legally blind approximately ten percent of those deemed legally blind by any measure have no vision the rest have some vision from light perception alone to relatively good acuity  low vision is sometimes used to describe visual acuities from 2070 to 20200 by the 10th revision of the who international statistical classification of diseases injuries and causes of death low vision is defined as visual acuity of less than 2060 618 but equal to or better than 20200 660 or corresponding visual field loss to less than 20 degrees in the better eye with best possible correction  blindness is defined as visual acuity of less than 20400 6120 or corresponding visual field loss to less than 10 degrees in the better eye with best possible correction blind people with undamaged eyes may still register light nonvisually for the purpose of circadian entrainment to the 24hour lightdark cycle  light signals for this purpose travel through the retinohypothalamic tract so a damaged optic nerve beyond where the retinohypothalamic tract exits it is no hindrance in 1934 the american medical association adopted the following definition of blindness the united states congress included this definition as part of the aid to the blind program in the social security act passed in 1935  in 1972 the aid to the blind program and two others combined under title xvi of the social security act to form the supplemental security income program which currently states in the united states legal blindness due to acuity loss is most often measured by a regular eye doctor with an eye chart legal blindness due to visual field being less than 20 degrees is measured by a visual field test using a number iv target size if the doctor or facility performing the test is approved by the social security administration this is the official us determination for legal blindness due to field loss in conditions like retinitis pigmentosa kuwait is one of many nations that share the same criteria for legal blindness in the uk the certificate of vision impairment cvi is used to certify patients as severely sight impaired or sight impaired the accompanying guidance for clinical staff states in practice the definition depends on individuals visual acuity and the extent to which their field of vision is restricted the department of health identifies three groups of patients who may be classified as severely visually impaired the department of health also state that a person is more likely to be classified as severely visually impaired if their eyesight has failed recently or if they are an older individual both groups being perceived as less able to adapt to their vision loss serious visual impairment has a variety of causes according to who estimates the most common causes of blindness around the world in 2002 were in terms of the worldwide prevalence of blindness the vastly greater number of people in the developing world and the greater likelihood of their being affected mean that the causes of blindness in those areas are numerically more important  cataract is responsible for more than 22 million cases of blindness and glaucoma 6 million while leprosy and onchocerciasis each blind approximately 1 million individuals worldwide the number of individuals blind from trachoma has dropped dramatically in the past 10 years from 6 million to 13 million putting it in seventh place on the list of causes of blindness worldwide  xerophthalmia is estimated to affect 5 million children each year 500000 develop active corneal involvement and half of these go blind  central corneal ulceration is also a significant cause of monocular blindness worldwide accounting for an estimated 850000 cases of corneal blindness every year in the indian subcontinent alone  as a result corneal scarring from all causes now is the fourth greatest cause of global blindness vaughan  asburys general ophthalmology 17e people in developing countries are significantly more likely to experience visual impairment as a consequence of treatable or preventable conditions than are their counterparts in the developed world  while vision impairment is most common in people over age 60 across all regions children in poorer communities are more likely to be affected by blinding diseases than are their more affluent peers the link between poverty and treatable visual impairment is most obvious when conducting regional comparisons of cause  most adult visual impairment in north america and western europe is related to agerelated macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy  while both of these conditions are subject to treatment neither can be cured in developing countries wherein people have shorter life expectancies cataracts and waterborne parasitesboth of which can be treated effectivelyare most often the culprits see river blindness for example  of the estimated 40 million blind people located around the world 7080 can have some or all of their sight restored through treatment in developed countries where parasitic diseases are less common and cataract surgery is more available agerelated macular degeneration glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy are usually the leading causes of blindness childhood blindness can be caused by conditions related to pregnancy such as congenital rubella syndrome and retinopathy of prematurity eye injuries most often occurring in people under 30 are the leading cause of monocular blindness vision loss in one eye throughout the united states injuries and cataracts affect the eye itself while abnormalities such as optic nerve hypoplasia affect the nerve bundle that sends signals from the eye to the back of the brain which can lead to decreased visual acuity people with injuries to the occipital lobe of the brain can despite having undamaged eyes and optic nerves still be legally or totally blind people with albinism often have vision loss to the extent that many are legally blind though few of them actually cannot see  lebers congenital amaurosis can cause total blindness or severe sight loss from birth or early childhood recent advances in mapping of the human genome have identified other genetic causes of low vision or blindness  one such example is bardetbiedl syndrome rarely blindness is caused by the intake of certain chemicals a wellknown example is methanol which is only mildly toxic and minimally intoxicating but when not competing with ethanol for metabolism methanol breaks down into the substances formaldehyde and formic acid which in turn can cause blindness an array of other health complications and death blinding has been used as an act of vengeance and torture in some instances to deprive a person of a major sense by which they can navigate or interact within the world act fully independently and be aware of events surrounding them an example from the classical realm is oedipus who gouges out his own eyes after realizing that he fulfilled the awful prophecy spoken of him in 2003 a pakistani antiterrorism court sentenced a man to be blinded after he carried out an acid attack against his fiancee that resulted in her blinding the same sentence was given in 2009 for the man who blinded ameneh bahrami blindness can occur in combination with such conditions as mental retardation autism spectrum disorders cerebral palsy hearing impairments and epilepsy  in a study of 228 visually impaired children in metropolitan atlanta between 1991 and 1993 154 68 had an additional disability besides visual impairment a 2008 study published in the new england journal of medicine tested the effect of using gene therapy to help restore the sight of patients with a rare form of inherited blindness known as leber congenital amaurosis or lca leber congenital amaurosis damages the light receptors in the retina and usually begins affecting sight in early childhood with worsening vision until complete blindness around the age of 30 the study used a common cold virus to deliver a normal version of the gene called rpe65 directly into the eyes of affected patients  remarkably all 3 patients aged 19 22 and 25 responded well to the treatment and reported improved vision following the procedure  due to the age of the patients and the degenerative nature of lca the improvement of vision in gene therapy patients is encouraging for researchers it is hoped that gene therapy may be even more effective in younger lca patients who have experienced limited vision loss as well as in  other blind or partially blind individuals two experimental treatments for retinal problems include a cybernetic replacement and transplant of fetal retinal cells many people with serious visual impairments can travel independently using a wide range of tools and techniques   orientation and mobility specialists are professionals who are specifically trained to teach people with visual impairments how to travel safely confidently and independently in the home and the community   these professionals can also help blind people to practice travelling on specific routes which they may use often such as the route from ones house to a convenience store   becoming familiar with an environment or route can make it much easier for a blind person to navigate successfully tools such as the white cane with a red tip  the international symbol of blindness  may also be used to improve mobility a long cane is used to extend the users range of touch sensation it is usually swung in a low sweeping motion across the intended path of travel to detect obstacles  however techniques for cane travel can vary depending on the user andor the situation some visually impaired persons do not carry these kinds of canes opting instead for the shorter lighter identification id cane  still others require a support cane the choice depends on the individuals vision motivation and other factors a small number of people employ guide dogs to assist in mobility  these dogs are trained to navigate around various obstacles and to indicate when it becomes necessary to go up or down a step  however the helpfulness of guide dogs is limited by the inability of dogs to understand complex directions the human half of the guide dog team does the directing based upon skills acquired through previous mobility training  in this sense the handler might be likened to an aircrafts navigator who must know how to get from one place to another and the dog to the pilot who gets them there safely in addition some blind people use software using gps technology as a mobility aid  such software can assist blind people with orientation and navigation but it is not a replacement for traditional mobility tools such as white canes and guide dogs government actions are sometimes taken to make public places more accessible to blind people   public transportation is freely available to the blind in many cities   tactile paving and audible traffic signals can make it easier and safer for visually impaired pedestrians to cross streets  in addition to making rules about who can and cannot use a cane some governments mandate the rightofway be given to users of white canes or guide dogs most visually impaired people who are not totally blind read print either of a regular size or enlarged by magnification devices   many also read largeprint which is easier for them to read without such devices a variety of magnifying glasses some handheld and some on desktops can make reading easier for them others read braille or the infrequently used moon type or rely on talking books and readers or reading machines which convert printed text to speech or braille they use computers with special hardware such as scanners and refreshable braille displays as well as software written specifically for the blind such as optical character recognition applications and screen readers some people access these materials through agencies for the blind such as the national library service for the blind and physically handicapped in the united states the national library for the blind or the rnib in the united kingdom closedcircuit televisions equipment that enlarges and contrasts textual items are a more hightech alternative to traditional magnification devices there are also over 100 radio reading services throughout the world that provide people with vision impairments with readings from periodicals over the radio the international association of audio information services provides links to all of these organizations access technology such as screen readers screen magnifiers and refreshable braille displays enable the blind to use mainstream computer applications and mobile phones the availability of assistive technology is increasing accompanied by concerted efforts to ensure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users including the blind  later versions of microsoft windows include an accessibility wizard  magnifier for those with partial vision and microsoft narrator a simple screen reader  linux distributions as live cds for the blind include oralux and adriane knoppix the latter developed in part by adriane knopper who has a visual impairment  mac os also comes with a builtin screen reader called voiceover the movement towards greater web accessibility is opening a far wider number of websites to adaptive technology making the web a more inviting place for visually impaired surfers experimental approaches in sensory substitution are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live views from a camera blind people may use talking equipment such as thermometers watches clocks scales calculators and compasses they may also enlarge or mark dials on devices such as ovens and thermostats to make them usable  other techniques used by blind people to assist them in daily activities include most people once they have been visually impaired for long enough devise their own adaptive strategies in all areas of personal and professional management the who estimates that in 2002 there were 161 million visually impaired people in the world about 26 of the total population   of this number 124 million about 2 had low vision and 37 million about 06 were blind   in order of frequency the leading causes were cataract uncorrected refractive errors near sighted far sighted or an astigmatism glaucoma and agerelated macular degeneration in 1987 it was estimated that 598000 people in the united states met the legal definition of blindness  of this number 58 were over the age of 65 the word blind adjective and verb is often used to signify a lack of knowledge of something  for example a blind date is a date in which the people involved have not previously met a blind experiment is one in which information is kept from either the experimenter or the participant in order to mitigate the placebo effect or observer bias the expression blind leading the blind refers to incapable people leading other incapable people   being blind to something means not understanding or being aware of it a blind spot is an area where someone cannot see eg where a car driver cannot see because parts of his cars bodywork are in the way blind and partially sighted people participate in sports such as swimming snow skiing and athletics some sports have been invented or adapted for the blind such as goalball association football cricket and golf the worldwide authority on sports for the blind is the international blind sports federation people with vision impairments have participated in the paralympic games since the 1976 summer paralympics in toronto statements that certain species of mammals are born blind refers to them being born with their eyes closed and their eyelids fused together the eyes open later  one example is the rabbit   in humans the eyelids are fused for a while before birth but open again before the normal birth time but very premature babies are sometimes born with their eyes fused shut and opening later   other animals such as the blind mole rat are truly blind and rely on other senses the theme of blind animals has been a powerful one in literature   peter schaffers tonyaward winning play equus tells the story of a boy who blinds six horses   theodore taylors classic young adult novel the trouble with tuck is about a teenage girl helen who trains her blind dog to follow and trust a seeingeye dog   jacob appels prizewinning story rods and cones describes the disruption that a blind rabbit causes in a married couples life   in nonfiction a recent classic is linda kay hardies essay lessons learned from a blind cat in cat women female writers on their feline friends 
economyofbenin the economy of benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture and cotton  cotton accounts for 40 of gdp and roughly 80 of official export receipts  there is also production of textiles palm products and cocoa beans  maize corn beans rice peanuts cashews pineapples cassava yams and other various tubers are grown for local subsistence  benin began producing a modest quantity of offshore oil in october 1982  production ceased in recent years but exploration of new sites is ongoing a modest fishing fleet provides fish and shrimp for local subsistence and export to europe formerly governmentowned commercial activities are now privatized a french brewer acquired the former staterun brewery  smaller businesses are privately owned by beninese citizens but some firms are foreign owned primarily french and lebanese the private commercial and agricultural sectors remain the principal contributors to growth since the transition to a democratic government in 1990 benin has undergone an economic recovery a large injection of external investment from both private and public sources has alleviated the economic difficulties of the early 1990s caused by global recession and persistently low commodity prices although the latter continues to affect the economy the manufacturing sector is confined to some light industry which is mainly involved in processing primary products and the cow production of consumer goods a planned joint hydroelectric project with neighboring togo is intended to reduce benins dependence on imported energy mostly from ghana which currently accounts for a significant proportion of the countrys imports the service sector has grown quickly stimulated by economic liberalization and fiscal reform and the use of modern technology such as automobiles and computers has grown considerably as a result  membership of the cfa franc zone offers reasonable currency stability as well as access to french economic support  benin sells its products mainly to france and in smaller quantities to the netherlands korea japan and india france is benins leading source for imports  benin is also a member of the west african economic community ecowas despite its rapid growth the economy of benin still remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture cotton production and regional trade  growth in real output averaged a sound 5 since 1996 but a rapid population rise offset much of this growth on a per capita basis   inflation has subsided over the past several years  commercial and transport activities which make up a large part of gdp are vulnerable to developments in nigeria particularly fuel shortages although trade unions in benin represent up to 75 of the formal workforce the large informal economy has been noted by the international trade union confederation itcu to contain ongoing problems including a lack of womens wage equality the use of child labour and the continuing issue of forced labour benins financial sector is dominated by banks and in general remains shallow  however a series of reforms were undertaken in the 1990s which resulted in the consolidation of the banking sector and in the privatization of all state banks a legal framework regarding licensing bank activities organizational and capital requirements inspections and sanctions all applicable to all countries of the union is in place and underwent significant reforms in 1999  there is no customer deposit insurance system benin has a lively and diversified microfinance sector  data from 2003 by the central bank stated a penetration rate of microfinance services of almost 60 percent  in 2006 the ministry of microfinance and employment of youth and women counted 762 organizations with 1308 branches including cooperatives ngos savingscredit associations and government projects  programmes for strengthening the sector are carried out on national and regional levels such as the prafide programme rgional dappui  la finance dcentralise the microfinance sector is also subject to supervision through the central bank as well as the responsible ministry for microfinance and employment of youth and women benin is member of the regional bourse regional des valeur mobilis brvm located in abidjan cote divoire  stocks were issued by a number of companies in the region  listed bonds were partly issued by companies and partly by governments of the west african monetary and economic union uemoa the payment and settlement system and clearing mechanisms were reformed in 2004 through the bceao and offer rtgs and swift access to banks financial institutions the stock exchange as well as the central bank and special banks 
politicsofbulgaria since 1990 bulgaria has an unstable party system nowadays dominated by the centerright populist movement for european development of bulgaria gerb which forms the current government under prime minister boyko borisov and the postcommunist social democratic bulgarian socialist party the us freedom house considers bulgaria a free country the bulgarian socialist party bsp won the first postcommunist assembly elections in 1990 with a small majority the bsp government formed at that time was brought down by a general strike in late 1990 and replaced by a transitional coalition government  meanwhile zhelyu zhelev a communistera dissident was elected president by the assembly in 1990 and in 1992 won bulgarias first direct presidential elections  zhelev served until early 1997  the countrys first fully democratic assembly elections in november 1991 ushered in another coalition government which was led by the proreform union of democratic forces udf in partnership with the turkish party movement for rights and freedoms mrf this coalition collapsed in late 1992 and was succeeded by a technocratic team put forward by the mrf which governed at the sufferance of the bsp for 2 years the bsp won preterm elections in december 1994 and remained in office until february 1997 when a populace alienated by the bsps failed corrupt government demanded its resignation and called for new elections a caretaker cabinet appointed by the president served until preterm parliamentary elections in april 1997 which yielded a landslide victory for proreform forces led by the udf in the united democratic forces coalition in 2001 former king simeon saxecoburggotha returned to power this time as prime minister with his national movement simeon ii the last parliamentary elections took place on 25 june 2005 bulgaria did not decriminalize homosexuality until 2002 doing so to conform to european union norms as it pressed for membership  nevertheless polls from the end of 2007 showed that 80 of bulgarian respondents expressed a negative view of gays and lesbians with 53 voicing an extremely negative view on july 27 2005 the bulgarian parliament chose sergey stanishev of the bulgarian socialist party as the new prime minister in a coalition government with the movement for rights and freedoms the vote was 120 against 119  however the parliament voted against the cabinets staff by 119 to 117 votes finally on august 15 2005 the bsp and national movement simeon ii formed a stable government along with the movement for rights and freedoms this grand coalition comprises the three largest parties  this coalition will have a large majority in parliament with 169 of the 240 deputies bulgaria joined the european union in 2007 the president of bulgaria georgi parvanov since 22 january 2002 is directly elected for a 5year term with the right to one reelection the president serves as the head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces the presidents main duties are to schedule elections and referendums represent bulgaria abroad conclude international treaties and head the consultative council for national security the president may return legislation to the national assembly for further debatea kind of vetobut the legislation can be passed again by an absolute majority vote the council of ministers is the principal organ of the executive branch it is usually formed by the majority party in parliament if one exists or by the largest party in parliament along with coalition partners  chaired by the prime minister it is responsible for carrying out state policy managing the state budget and maintaining law and order the council must resign if the national assembly passes a vote of no confidence in the council or the prime minister or rejects a vote of confidence the current governmental coalition is made of the centreright citizens for european development and the blue coalition an alliance of small centreright parties the bulgarian unicameral parliament the national assembly or narodno sabranie consists of 240 deputies who are elected for 4yearterms by popular vote the votes are for party or coalition lists of candidates for each of the twentyeight administrative divisions a party or coalition must garner a minimum of 4 of the vote in order to enter parliament  parliament is responsible for enactment of laws approval of the budget scheduling of presidential elections selection and dismissal of the prime minister and other ministers declaration of war deployment of troops outside of bulgaria and ratification of international treaties and agreements the bulgarian judicial system consists of regional district and appeal courts as well as a supreme court of cassation in addition there is a supreme administrative court and a system of military courts the presidents of the supreme court of cassation and the supreme administrative court as well as the prosecutor general are elected by a qualified majority of twothirds from all the members of the supreme judicial council and are appointed by the president of the republic the supreme judicial council is in charge of the selfadministration and organisation of the judiciary a qualified majority of twothirds of the membership of the supreme judicial council elects the presidents of the supreme court of cassation and of the supreme administrative court as well as the prosecutor general from among its members the president of the republic then appoints those elected the supreme judicial council has charge of the selfadministration and organization of the judiciary the constitutional court supervises the review of the constitutionality of laws and statutes brought before it as well as the compliance of these laws with international treaties that the government has signed  parliament elects the 12 members of the constitutional court by a twothirds majority the members serve for a nineyear term the territory of the republic of bulgaria subdivides into provinces and municipalities  bulgaria has 28 provinces each headed by a provincial governor appointed by the government  in addition the country includes 263 municipalities the constitutional court of bulgaria is in charge of reviewing the constitutionality of laws and statutes brought before it as well as the compliance of these laws with international treaties that the government has signed the 12 members of the constitutional court serve a nineyear term  parliament elects 13 of them the territory of the republic of bulgaria is divided into provinces and municipalities  in all bulgaria has 28 provinces each headed by a provincial governor appointed by the government  in addition there are 263 municipalities 
bluetooth the word bluetooth is an anglicised version of the scandinavian bltandbltann the epithet of the tenthcentury king harald i of denmark and parts of norway who united dissonant danish tribes into a single kingdom the implication is that bluetooth does the same with communications protocols uniting them into one universal standard the bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the younger futhark runes 10pxhagall  and 6pxbjarkan  haralds initials bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequencyhopping spread spectrum which chops up the data being sent and transmits chunks of it on up to 79 bands 1mhz each in the range 24022480mhz  this range is in the globally unlicensed industrial scientific and medical ism 24ghz shortrange radio frequency band originally gaussian frequencyshift keying gfsk modulation was the only modulation scheme available subsequently since the introduction of bluetooth 20edr 4dqpsk and 8dpsk modulation may also be used between compatible devices   devices functioning with gfsk are said to be operating in basic rate br mode where a gross data rate of 1 mbits is possible the term enhanced data rate edr is used to describe 4dpsk and 8dpsk schemes each giving 2 and 3 mbits respectively the combination of these br and edr modes in bluetooth radio technology is classified as a bredr radio bluetooth is a packetbased protocol with a masterslave structure  one master may communicate with up to 7 slaves in a piconet all devices share the masters clock  packet exchange is based on the basic clock defined by the master which ticks at 3125 s intervals  two clock ticks make up a slot of 625 s two slots make up a slot pair of 1250 s in the simple case of singleslot packets the master transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots the slave conversely receives in even slots and transmits in odd slots  packets may be 1 3 or 5 slots long but in all cases the master transmit will begin in even slots and the slave transmit in odd slots bluetooth provides a secure way to connect and exchange information between devices such as faxes mobile phones telephones laptops personal computers printers global positioning system gps receivers digital cameras and video game consoles the bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the bluetooth special interest group sig the bluetooth sig consists of more than 13000 companies in the areas of telecommunication computing networking and consumer electronics to be marketed as a bluetooth device it must be qualified to standards defined by the sig a master bluetooth device can communicate with up to seven devices in a piconet the devices can switch roles by agreement and the slave can become the master at any time at any given time data can be transferred between the master and one other device except for the littleused broadcast mode the master chooses which slave device to address typically it switches rapidly from one device to another in a roundrobin fashion the bluetooth core specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form a scatternet in which certain devices serve as bridges simultaneously playing the master role in one piconet and the slave role in another many usb bluetooth adapters or dongles are available some of which also include an irda adapter  older pre2003 bluetooth dongles however have limited capabilities offering only the bluetooth enumerator and a lesspowerful bluetooth radio incarnation  such devices can link computers with bluetooth with a distance of 100 meters but they do not offer much in the way of services that modern adapters do bluetooth is a standard wirereplacement communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption with a short range powerclassdependent 100 m 10 m and 1 m but ranges vary in practice see table below based on lowcost transceiver microchips in each device because the devices use a radio broadcast communications system they do not have to be in line of sight of each other in most cases the effective range of class 2 devices is extended if they connect to a class 1 transceiver compared to a pure class 2 network  this is accomplished by the higher sensitivity and transmission power of class 1 devices while the bluetooth core specification does mandate minimums for range the range of the technology is application specific and is not limited   manufacturers may tune their implementations to the range needed to support individual use cases to use bluetooth wireless technology a device must be able to interpret certain bluetooth profiles which are definitions of possible applications and specify general behaviors that bluetooth enabled devices use to communicate with other bluetooth devices  there are a wide range of bluetooth profiles that describe many different types of applications or use cases for devices for the new protocol architecture low energy massive interests obviously hamper the publicating of additional profiles and thus the sales of respective chips the respective announcements were not accomplished as forecasted  insofar in the ninth year after first adoption with the wibreer concepts in 2002 the promises again could not be served by the developing industry and the leading bluetooth sig bluetooth and wifi have many applications setting up networks printing or transferring files wifi is intended for resident equipment and its applications the category of applications is outlined as wlan the wireless local area networks  wifi is intended as a replacement for cabling for general local area network access in work areas bluetooth is intended for nonresident equipment and its applications the category of applications is outlined as the wireless personal area network wpan bluetooth is a replacement for cabling in a variety of personally carried applications in any ambiance and can also support fixed location applications such as smart energy functionality in the home thermostats etc wifi is a wireless version of a traditional ethernet network and requires configuration to set up shared resources transmit files and to set up audio links for example headsets and handsfree devices  wifi uses the same radio frequencies as bluetooth but with higher power resulting in a faster connection and better range from the base station the nearest equivalents in bluetooth are the dun profile which allows devices to act as modem interfaces and the pan profile which allows for adhoc networking bluetooth exists in many products such as the ipod touch lego mindstorms nxt playstation 3 psp go telephones the nintendo wii and some high definition headsets modems and watches the technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in lowbandwidth situations  bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones ie with a bluetooth headset or byte data with handheld computers transferring files bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices  bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide  this makes using services easier because more of the security network address and permission configuration can be automated than with many other network types a personal computer that does not have embedded bluetooth can be used with a bluetooth adapter that will enable the pc to communicate with other bluetooth devices such as mobile phones mice and keyboards  while some desktop computers and most recent laptops come with a builtin bluetooth radio others will require an external one in the form of a dongle unlike its predecessor irda which requires a separate adapter for each device bluetooth allows multiple devices to communicate with a computer over a single adapter apple has supported bluetooth since macosx v102 which was released in 2002 for microsoft platforms windows xp service pack 2 and sp3 previous versions required users to install their bluetooth adapters own drivers which were not directly supported by microsoft microsofts own bluetooth dongles packaged with their bluetooth computer devices have no external drivers and thus require at least windows xp service pack 2  windows vista rtmsp1 with the feature pack for wireless or windows vista sp2 support bluetooth 21edr the windows xp and windows vistawindows 7 bluetooth stacks support the following bluetooth profiles natively  pan spp dun hid hcrp the windows xp stack can be replaced by a third party stack which may support more profiles or newer versions of bluetooth the windows vistawindows 7 bluetooth stack supports vendorsupplied additional profiles without requiring the microsoft stack to be replaced linux has two popular bluetooth stacks bluez and affix the bluez stack is included with most linux kernels and was originally developed by qualcomm the affix stack was developed by nokia freebsd features bluetooth support since its 50 release netbsd features bluetooth support since its 40 release   its bluetooth stack has been ported to openbsd as well a bluetoothenabled mobile phone is able to pair with many devices  to ensure the broadest support of feature functionality together with legacy device support the open mobile terminal platform omtp forum has published a recommendations paper entitled bluetooth local connectivity the bluetooth specification was developed in 1994 by jaap haartsen and sven mattisson who were working for ericsson in lund sweden the specification is based on frequencyhopping spread spectrum technology the specifications were formalized by the bluetooth special interest group sig the sig was formally announced on may 20 1998  today it has a membership of over 13000 companies worldwide it was established by ericsson ibm intel toshiba and nokia and later joined by many other companies versions 10 and 10b had many problems and manufacturers had difficulty making their products interoperable  versions 10 and 10b also included mandatory bluetooth hardware device address bdaddr transmission in the connecting process rendering anonymity impossible at the protocol level which was a major setback for certain services planned for use in bluetooth environments this version is backward compatible with 11 and the major enhancements include the following this version of the bluetooth core specification was released in 2004 and is backward compatible with the previous version 12  the main difference is the introduction of an enhanced data rate edr for faster data transfer the nominal rate of edr is about 3 mbits although the practical data transfer rate is 21 mbits the specification is published as bluetooth v20  edr which implies that edr is an optional feature  aside from edr there are other minor improvements to the 20 specification and products may claim compliance to bluetooth v20 without supporting the higher data rate  at least one commercial device states bluetooth v20 without edr on its data sheet bluetooth core specification version 21  edr is fully backward compatible with 12 and was adopted by the  bluetooth sig on july 26 2007 the headline feature of 21 is secure simple pairing ssp this improves the pairing experience for bluetooth devices while increasing the use and strength of security  see the section on pairing below for more details version 30  hs of the bluetooth core specification the highspeed part of the specification is not mandatory and hence only devices sporting the hs will actually support the bluetooth over wifi highspeed data transfer a bluetooth 30 device without the hs suffix will not support high speed and needs to only support unicast connectionless data ucd as shown in the httpwwwbluetoothcomsitecollectiondocumentscorev30hszip bluetooth 30hs specification vol0 section 41 specification naming conventions on june 12 2007 nokia and bluetooth sig had announced that wibree will be a part of the bluetooth specification as an ultralow power bluetooth technology on december 17 2009 the bluetooth sig adopted bluetooth low energy technology as the hallmark feature of the version 40  the provisional names wibree and bluetooth ulp ultra low power are abandoned on april 21 2010 the bluetooth sig completed the bluetooth core specification version 40 which includes classic bluetooth bluetooth high speed and bluetooth low energy protocols  bluetooth high speed is based on wifi and classic bluetooth consists of legacy bluetooth protocols bluetooth low energy is an alternative to the bluetooth standard that was introduced in bluetooth v40 and is aimed at very low power applications running off a coin cell it allows two types of implementation dualmode and singlemode  in a dualmode implementation bluetooth low energy functionality is integrated into an existing classic bluetooth controller the resulting architecture shares much of classic bluetooths existing radio and functionality resulting in a negligible cost increase compared to classic bluetooth additionally manufacturers can use current classic bluetooth bluetooth v21  edr or bluetooth v30  hs chips with the new low energy stack enhancing the development of classic bluetooth enabled devices with new capabilities costreduced singlemode chips which will enable highly integrated and compact devices will feature a lightweight link layer providing ultralow power idle mode operation simple device discovery and reliable pointtomultipoint data transfer with advanced powersave and secure encrypted connections at the lowest possible cost the link layer in these controllers will enable internet connected sensors to schedule bluetooth low energy traffic between bluetooth transmissions currently 201012 the definition of respective application profiles still are not fulfilled workitems of the standardisation bodies the high speed amp feature of bluetooth v30 is based on 80211 but the amp mechanism was designed to be usable with other radios as well it was originally intended for uwb but the wimedia alliance the body responsible for the flavor of uwb intended for bluetooth announced in march 2009 that it was disbanding on march 16 2009 the wimedia alliance announced it was entering into technology transfer agreements for the wimedia ultrawideband uwb specifications  wimedia has transferred all current and future specifications including work on future high speed and power optimized implementations to the bluetooth special interest group sig wireless usb promoter group and the usb implementers forum after the successful completion of the technology transfer marketing and related administrative items the wimedia alliance will cease operations in october 2009 the bluetooth special interest group suspended development of uwb as part of the alternative macphy bluetooth v30  hs solution a small but significant number of former wimedia members had not and would not sign up to the necessary agreements for the ip transfer the bluetooth sig is now in the process of evaluating other options for its longer term roadmap used for control of the radio link between two devices  implemented on the controller used to multiplex multiple logical connections between two devices using different higher level protocols provides segmentation and reassembly of onair packets in basic mode l2cap provides packets with a payload configurable up to 64kb with 672 bytes as the default mtu and 48 bytes as the minimum mandatory supported mtu in retransmission  flow control modes l2cap can be configured for reliable or isochronous data per channel by performing retransmissions and crc checks bluetooth core specification addendum 1 adds two additional l2cap modes to the core specification   these modes effectively deprecate original retransmission and flow control modes reliability in any of these modes is optionally andor additionally guaranteed by the lower layer bluetooth bdredr air interface by configuring the number of retransmissions and flush timeout time after which the radio will flush packets  inorder sequencing is guaranteed by the lower layer only l2cap channels configured in ertm or sm may be operated over amp logical links service discovery protocol sdp allows a device to discover services supported by other devices and their associated parameters  for example when connecting a mobile phone to a bluetooth headset sdp will be used for determining which bluetooth profiles are supported by the headset headset profile hands free profile advanced audio distribution profile a2dp etc and the protocol multiplexer settings needed to connect to each of them  each service is identified by a universally unique identifier uuid with official services bluetooth profiles assigned a short form uuid 16 bits rather than the full 128 standardised communication between the host stack eg a pc or mobile phone os and the controller the bluetooth ic this standard allows the host stack or controller ic to be swapped with minimal adaptation there are several hci transport layer standards each using a different hardware interface to transfer the same command event and data packets the most commonly used are usb in pcs and uart in mobile phones and pdas in bluetooth devices with simple functionality eg headsets the host stack and controller can be implemented on the same microprocessor  in this case the hci is optional although often implemented as an internal software interface radio frequency communications rfcomm is a cable replacement protocol used to create a virtual serial data stream   rfcomm provides for binary data transport and emulates eia232 formerly rs232 control signals over the bluetooth baseband layer rfcomm provides a simple reliable data stream to the user similar to tcp it is used directly by many telephony related profiles                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       as a carrier for at commands as well as being a transport layer for obex over bluetooth many bluetooth applications use rfcomm because of its widespread support and publicly available api on most operating systems  additionally applications that used a serial port to communicate can be quickly ported to use rfcomm bnep is used for transferring another protocol stacks data via an l2cap channel its main purpose is the transmission of ip packets in the personal area networking profile bnep performs a similar function to snap in wireless lan used by the remote control profile to transfer avc commands over an l2cap channel the music control buttons on a stereo headset use this protocol to control the music player used by the advanced audio distribution profile to stream music to stereo headsets over an l2cap channel intended to be used by video distribution profile telephony control protocolbinary tcs bin is the bitoriented protocol that defines the call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between bluetooth devices   additionally tcs bin defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of bluetooth tcs devices tcsbin is only used by the cordless telephony profile which failed to attract implementers  as such it is only of historical interest adopted protocols are defined by other standardsmaking organizations and incorporated into bluetooths protocol stack allowing bluetooth to create protocols only when necessary the adopted protocols include three types of error correction are implemented in bluetooth systems any bluetooth device in discoverable mode will transmit the following information on demand any device may perform an inquiry to find other devices to connect to and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries  however if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device it always responds to direct connection requests and transmits the information shown in the list above if requested  use of a devices services may require pairing or acceptance by its owner but the connection itself can be initiated by any device and held until it goes out of range some devices can be connected to only one device at a time and connecting to them prevents them from connecting to other devices and appearing in inquiries until they disconnect from the other device every device has a unique 48bit address  however these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries  instead friendly bluetooth names are used which can be set by the user  this name appears when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices most phones have the bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default  most phones and laptops show only the bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices  this can be confusing as for example there could be several phones in range named t610 see bluejacking many of the services offered over bluetooth can expose private data or allow the connecting party to control the bluetooth device  for security reasons it is therefore necessary to control which devices are allowed to connect to a given bluetooth device  at the same time it is useful for bluetooth devices to automatically establish a connection without user intervention as soon as they are in range to resolve this conflict bluetooth uses a process called pairing which is generally manually started by a device usermaking that devices bluetooth link visible to other devices  two devices need to be paired to communicate with each other the pairing process is typically triggered automatically the first time a device receives a connection request from a device with which it is not yet paired  once a pairing has been established it is remembered by the devices which can then connect to each without user intervention  when desired the pairing relationship can later be removed by the user during the pairing process the two devices involved establish a relationship by creating a shared secret known as a link key if a link key is stored by both devices they are said to be paired or bonded a device that wants to communicate only with a bonded device can cryptographically authenticate the identity of the other device and so be sure that it is the same device it previously paired with  once a link key has been generated an authenticated acl link between the devices may be encrypted so that the data that they exchange over the airwaves is protected against eavesdropping link keys can be deleted at any time by either device if done by either device this will implicitly remove the bonding between the devices so it is possible for one of the devices to have a link key stored but not be aware that it is no longer bonded to the device associated with the given link key bluetooth services generally require either encryption or authentication and as such require pairing before they allow a remote device to use the given service some services such as the object push profile elect not to explicitly require authentication or encryption so that pairing does not interfere with the user experience associated with the service usecases pairing mechanisms have changed significantly with the introduction of secure simple pairing in bluetooth v21 the following summarizes the pairing mechanisms ssp is considered simple for the following reasons prior to bluetooth v21 encryption is not required and can be turned off at any time  moreover the encryption key is only good for approximately 235 hours using a single encryption key longer than this time allows simple xor attacks to retrieve the encryption key link keys may be stored on the device file system not on the bluetooth chip itself  many bluetooth chip manufacturers allow link keys to be stored on the device however if the device is removable this means that the link key will move with the device the protocol operates in the licensefree ism band at 24022480ghz to avoid interfering with other protocols that use the 245ghz band the bluetooth protocol divides the band into 79channels each 1mhz wide and changes channels up to 1600 times per second  implementations with versions 11 and 12 reach speeds of 7231kbits  version 20 implementations feature bluetooth enhanced data rate edr and reach 21mbits  technically version 20 devices have a higher power consumption but the three times faster rate reduces the transmission times effectively reducing power consumption to half that of 1x devices assuming equal traffic load bluetooth implements confidentiality authentication and key derivation with custom algorithms based on the safer block cipher bluetooth key generation is generally based on a bluetooth pin which must be entered into both devices  this procedure might be modified if one of the devices has a fixed pin eg for headsets or similar devices with a restricted user interface during pairing an initialization key or master key is generated using the e22 algorithm the e0 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets granting confidentiality and is based on a shared cryptographic secret namely a previously generated link key or master key those keys used for subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface rely on the bluetooth pin which has been entered into one or both devices an overview of bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits was published in 2007 by andreas becker in september 2008 the national institute of standards and technology nist published a guide to bluetooth security that will serve as reference to organizations on the security capabilities of bluetooth and steps for securing bluetooth technologies effectively   while bluetooth has its benefits it is susceptible to denial of service attacks eavesdropping maninthemiddle attacks message modification and resource misappropriation   usersorganizations must evaluate their acceptable level of risk and incorporate security into the lifecycle of bluetooth devices   to help mitigate risks included in the nist document are security checklists with guidelines and recommendations for creating and maintaining secure bluetooth piconets headsets and smart card readers bluetooth v21  finalized in 2007 with consumer devices first appearing in 2009  makes significant changes to bluetooths security including pairing   see the pairing mechanisms section for more about these changes bluejacking is the sending of either a picture or a message from one user to an unsuspecting user through bluetooth wireless technology   common applications include short messages eg youve just been bluejacked in 2001 jakobsson and wetzel from bell laboratories discovered flaws in the bluetooth pairing protocol and also pointed to vulnerabilities in the encryption scheme the virus was first described by kaspersky lab and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate the virus was written as a proofofconcept by a group of virus writers known as 29a and sent to antivirus groups  thus it should be regarded as a potential but not real security threat to bluetooth  technology or symbian os since the virus has never spread outside of this system  in august 2004 a worldrecordsetting experiment see also bluetooth sniping showed that the range of class 2 bluetooth radios could be extended to 178km 108 mile with directional antennas and signal amplifiers this poses a potential security threat because it enables attackers to access vulnerable bluetooth devices from a distance beyond expectation the attacker must also be able to receive information from the victim to set up a connection  no attack can be made against a bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on in january 2005 a mobile malware worm known as lasco a began targeting mobile phones using symbian os series 60 platform using bluetooth enabled devices to replicate itself and spread to other devices the worm is selfinstalling and begins once the mobile user approves the transfer of the file velascosis from another device   once installed the worm begins looking for other bluetooth enabled devices to infect   additionally the worm infects othersis files on the device allowing replication to another device through use of removable media secure digital compact flash etc the worm can render the mobile device unstable in april 2005 cambridge university security researchers published results of their actual implementation of passive attacks against the pinbased pairing between commercial bluetooth devices confirming the attacks to be practicably fast and the bluetooth symmetric key establishment method to be vulnerable  to rectify this vulnerability they carried out an implementation which showed that stronger asymmetric key establishment is feasible for certain classes of devices such as mobile phones in june 2005 httpwwwengtauacilshakedy yaniv shaked and httpwwwengtauacilyash avishai wool published a paper describing both passive and active methods for obtaining the pin for a bluetooth link the passive attack allows a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof if the attacker was present at the time of initial pairing the active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process  after that the first method can be used to crack the pin this attacks major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to reenter the pin during the attack when the device prompts them to  also this active attack probably requires custom hardware since most commercially available bluetooth devices are not capable of the timing necessary in august 2005 police in cambridgeshire england issued warnings about thieves using bluetooth enabled phones to track other devices left in cars  police are advising users to ensure that any mobile networking connections are deactivated if laptops and other devices are left in this way in april 2006 researchers from secure network and fsecure published a report that warns of the large number of devices left in a visible state and issued statistics on the spread of various bluetooth services and the ease of spread of an eventual bluetooth worm in october 2007 at the luxemburgish hacklu security conference kevin finistere and thierry zoller demonstrated and released a remote root shell via bluetooth on mac os x v1039 and v104 they also demonstrated the first bluetooth pin and linkkeys cracker which is based on the research of wool and shaked bluetooth uses the microwave radio frequency spectrum in the 2402ghz to 2480ghz range maximum power output from a bluetooth radio is 100mw 25mw and 1mw for class 1 class 2 and class 3 devices respectively which puts class 1 at roughly the same level as mobile phones and the other two classes much lower accordingly class 2 and class 3 bluetooth devices are considered less of a potential hazard than mobile phones and class 1 may be comparable to that of mobile phones  the maximum for a class 1 is 100mw for bluetooth but 250mw for umts wcdma 1w for gsm18001900 and 2w for gsm850900 for instance the bluetooth innovation world cup is an international competition encouraging the development of new innovations and ideas for applications leveraging the bluetooth low energy wireless technology in sports fitness and health care products the bluetooth innovation world cup is a marketing initiative of the bluetooth special interest group sig the aim of the competition is to stimulate new markets creating new fields of applications and establishing bluetooth low energy technology as the wireless data transfer standard for low energy applications is ordinary business in the competition of wireless standards the initiative will go on for three years having started 1 june 2009 the first international bluetooth innovation world cup 2009 drew more than 250 international entries illustrating the abundance of opportunities for product development with the new bluetooth low energy wireless technology the bluetooth innovation world cup 2009 was sponsored by nokia freescale semiconductor texas instruments nordic semiconductor stmicroelectronics and brunel on february 8 2010 the bluetooth sig has awarded edward sazonov physical activity innovations llc the title of bluetooth innovator of the year for 2009  sazonov received this recognition at the official award ceremony held inline with the wearable technologies show at ispo 2010 the worlds largest trade show for sporting goods the award includes a cash prize of 5000 and a bluetooth qualification program voucher qdid valued at up to us 10000 sazonovs winning idea the fit companion is a small unobtrusive sensor that when clippedon to a users clothing or integrated in to a shoe provides feedback about their physical activity the data transmitted via bluetooth low energy technology can help individuals to lose weight and achieve optimal physical activity  intended for use in both training and daily activities like walking or performing chores this simple measuring device may offer a solution for reducing obesity the bluetooth special interest group sig announced the start of the second bluetooth innovation world cup iwc on 1 june 2010  the 2010 bluetooth innovation world cup has a focus on applications for the sports  fitness health care and home information and control markets the competition will close for registrations on september 15 2010 
stolenbase in baseball a stolen base occurs when a baserunner successfully advances to the next base while the pitcher is delivering the ball to home plate   in baseball statistics stolen bases are denoted by sb if the defense makes no attempt to put the baserunner out for example if the catcher doesnt even look his way the play is scored as defensive indifference also called fielders indifference and no stolen base is credited to the runner   defensive indifference is generally only scored instead of a stolen base when the game is in a late inning and the team with the stealing baserunner is down by more than one score  httpmlbmlbcommlbdownloadsy2008officialrules10theofficialscorerpdf mlb rule 1007g covers defensive indifference successful basestealing requires not just simple running speed but also good baserunning instincts quickness and splitsecond timing the scoring and criteria for awarding a stolen base to a runner are covered by rule 1007 of the major league baseball rule book ned cuthbert playing for the philadelphia keystones in either 1863 or 1865 is documented as the first baseball player to steal a base in a baseball game although the term stolen base was not used until 1871   for a time in the 19th century stolen bases were credited when a baserunner reached an extra base on a base hit from another player many of which would not have counted under modern rules   modern steal rules were fully implemented in 1898 and steals are now only credited when a runner successfully takes an extra base while the ball is being pitched but not already hit if the ball is dead on the pitch run on such as from a foul ball except caught flyout  the steal is not allowed and the runner returns to his timeofpitch base  in addition if the situation of the game is such that the steal is of little use usually in the late innings when the runner would not change the games outcome by scoring and the catcher does not attempt to throw out the runner the runner is not credited with a steal and the base is attributed to defensive indifference base stealing was popular in the games early decades with speedsters such as ty cobb and clyde milan stealing nearly 100 bases in a season but the tactic fell into relative disuse after babe ruth introduced the era of the home run  in 1955 for example no one in baseball stole more than 25 bases and dom dimaggio won the al stolen base title in 1950 with just 15   however in the late 1950s and early 1960s basestealing was brought back to prominence primarily by luis aparicio and maury wills who broke cobbs modern singleseason record by stealing 104 bases in 1962   wills record was broken in turn by lou brock in 1974 and rickey henderson in 1982   the stolen base remained a popular tactic through the 1980s perhaps best exemplified by vince coleman and the st louis cardinals but began to decline again in the 1990s as the frequency of home runs reached unprecedented heights and the stealfriendly artificial turf ballparks began to disappear a basestealing runner must begin running as soon as the pitcher has committed himself to throwing a pitch to home plate neither sooner nor later if he begins to run too soon the pitcher may throw to a base rather than to homein this case the runner is picked off and will most likely be tagged out   before the pitch the runner will often take a leadoff walking several steps away from the base as a head start for his next advance   in some cases the pitcher may hold the runner on by throwing to the base several times before pitching in the hope of dissuading the runner from too big a leadoff   this action can also result in the runner being tagged out in a pickoff   another popular strategy is for the runner to attempt a steal while the hitter is instructed to swing at the pitch if it is at all hittable   this hitandrun play can give the runner a good head start to take an extra base on the hit but if the hitter fails to hit the ball the hitandrun becomes a pure steal attempt and the runner may be thrown out  another risk of the hitandrun is that a caught line drive could result in an easy double play although this is offset by the lower likelihood of a ground ball double play a second and lesserknown technique is the delayed steal  this technique famously practiced by eddie stanky of the brooklyn dodgers is where the runner does not break immediately for second when the pitcher commits to the plate  instead the runner takes two or three large shuffles off the base when the pitcher goes to the plate  this keys the middle infielders and the catcher to let their guard down as it appears the runner is not stealing but only getting a good secondary lead in case the ball is hit  in reality the delayed stealer is closing the distance to second base  when the ball crosses the plate the runner breaks for second base and is essentially stealing the base on the middle infielders who have not covered second base  additionally the catcher is not ready to come out of his crouch and cannot throw to second until an infielder gets there the delayed steal is a deceptive technique that is sometimes executed by even slow runners and many times results in a catcher throwing into center field the technique is rarely seen at the major league level but is used effectively by multiple college programs second base is the base most often stolen it is also technically the easiest to steal as it is farthest from home plate and thus a longer throw from the catcher is required to prevent it  third base is a shorter throw for the catcher and thus more difficult to steal though a righthanded batter can sometimes help by serving as an obstacle that the catcher must throw around  third base is generally stolen off the pitcher since a bigger lead is possible off second base it is possible for a player to steal home plate but this requires great daring and aggressiveness as the ball will almost certainly arrive at home plate before the runner   thus a sacrifice bunt or squeeze play is typically used instead  ty cobb holds the records for most steals of home in a single season 8 as well as for a career 54  jackie robinson was also renowned for the thrilling feat of stealing home which he famously accomplished in game 1 of the 1955 world series in more recent years pure steals of home are rare although a player may steal home plate during a delayed double steal in which a runner on first attempts to steal second while the runner on third breaks for home as soon as the catcher throws to second base the most recent pure steal of home ie not involving a squeeze play or an additional steal attempt was on september 9 2010 when chris nelson of the colorado rockies stole home against the cincinnati reds base stealing is an important characteristic of a particular style of baseball sometimes called small ball or manufacturing runs a team playing with this style emphasizes doing little things including risky running plays like basestealing to advance runners and score runs often relying on pitching and defense to keep games close the los angeles dodgers of the 1960s led by pitcher sandy koufax and speedy shortstop maury wills were a successful example of this style the antithesis of this would be a team that relies on power hitting the baltimore orioles of the 1970s led by manager earl weaver were an example of such a slugging team that aspired to score most of its runs via home runs   often the small ball model is associated with the national league while power hitting is seen as more associated with the american league however some of the more successful american league teams of recent memory including the 2002 anaheim angels the 2001 seattle mariners and the 2005 chicago white sox have experienced their success in part as a result of playing small ball advancing runners through means such as the stolen base and the related hit and run play   successful teams often combine both styles with a speedy runner or two complementing hitters with power such as the 2005 white sox who despite playing small ball still hit 200 home runs that season one of the difficulties in determining how good a player is at stealing bases is whether to judge the cumulative number of steals or the success ratio of steals to caught stealing   noted statistician bill james has argued that unless a player can steal a high percentage of the time then the stolen base is not useful and can even be detrimental to a team a success rate of 67 to 70 or better is necessary to make stealing bases worthwhile judging the basestealing abilities of players from earlier eras is also problematic because caught stealing was not a regularly recorded statistic until the middle of the 20th century  ty cobb for example was known as a great basestealer with 892 steals and a success rate of over 83   however the data on cobbs caught stealing is missing from 12 seasons strongly suggesting he was unsuccessful many more times than his stats indicate  carlos beltrn with 286 steals has the highest career success rate of all players with over 300 stolen base attempts at 883 the first mention of the stolen base in a statistical sense was in the 1877 scoring rules adopted by the national league which noted credit toward a players total bases when a base is stolen it was not until 1886 that the stolen base appeared as something to be tracked but was only to appear in the summary of the game in 1887 the stolen base was given its own individual statistical column in the box score and was defined for purposes of scoringevery base made after first base has been reached by a base runner except for those made by reason of or with the aid of a battery error wild pitch or passed ball or by batting balks or by being forced off  in short shall include all bases made by a clean steal or through a wild throw or muff of the ball by a fielder who is directly trying to put the base runner out while attempting to steal the next year it was clarified that any attempt to steal must be credited to the runner and that fielders committing errors during this play must also be charged with an error  this rule also clarified that advancement of another bases beyond the one being stolen is not credited as a stolen base on the same play and that an error is charged to the fielder who permitted the extra advancement  there was clarification that a runner is credited with a steal if the attempt began before a battery error  finally batters were credited with a stolen base if they were tagged out after over running the base in 1892 a shortlived rule was added crediting runners with stolen bases if a base runner advanced on a fly out or if they advanced more than one base on any safe hit or attempted out providing an attempt was made by the defense to put the runner out in 1898 stolen base scoring was narrowed to no longer include advancement in the event of a fielding errors or advancement caused by a hit batsman without using the term 1920 saw the first rule that would be referred to today as defensive indifference as stolen bases would not be credited unless an effort was made to stop the runner by the defense one of the largest rewrites to the rules in history came in 1950  the stolen base  was specifically to be credited to a runner whenever he advances one base unaided by a base hit a putout a forceout a fielders choice a passed ball a wild pitch or a balk there were noted exceptions such as denying a stolen base to an otherwise successful steal as a part of a double or triple steal if one other runner was thrown out in the process a clarification came in 1955 that awarded a stolen base to a runner even if he became involved in a rundown provided he managed to evade the rundown and advance to the base he was intending to steal the criteria for being charged with caught stealing was fine tuned in 1979 with a runner being credited with being caught if he is put out while trying to steal oversliding a base otherwise successfully stolen or is picked off a base and tries to advance to the next base   runners would specifically not be credited with being caught if the player was put out after a wild pitch or passed ball while it is not recorded as a steal in a practical sense a batter can be said to steal first base by successfully running to first base without being tagged or thrown out in rare circumstances following an uncaught third strike the rarelyseen play avoids an out and gains a baserunner  statistically it is recorded as a strikeout plus a passed ball or wild pitch and a stolen base statistic does not accrue in baseballs earlier decades a runner on second base could steal first base perhaps with the intention of drawing a throw which might allow a runner on third to score a tactic famously employed by germany schaefer however such a tactic was not recorded as a stolen base and modern rules forbid going backwards on the basepaths in order to confuse the defense or make a travesty of the game the expression you cant steal first base is sometimes used in reference to a player who is fast but not very good at getting on base in the first place 
listofmajorbiblicalfigures the hebrew bible is the tanakh of judaism judaism does not accept or use the term old testament nor does it recognize the deuterocanonical books or the new testament of christianity as canonical according to the book of genesis all the israelites were descendants of the sons of jacob who was also blessed with the name israel his twelve male children become the ancestors of the twelve tribes of israel jesus the twelve 
banachspace in mathematics banach spaces pronounced are one of the central objects of study in functional analysis  many of the infinitedimensional function spaces studied in analysis are banach spaces including spaces of continuous functions continuous functions on a compact hausdorff space spaces of lebesgue integrable functions known as lp spaces and spaces of holomorphic functions known as hardy spaces they are the most commonly used topological vector spaces and their topology comes from a norm they are named after the polish mathematician stefan banach who introduced them in 19201922 along with hans hahn and eduard helly banach spaces are defined as complete normed vector spaces  this means that a banach space is a vector space v over the real or complex numbers with a norm  such that every cauchy sequence with respect to the metric dx y  x  y in v has a limit in v throughout let k stand for one of the fields r or c the familiar euclidean spaces kn where the euclidean norm of x x1  xn is given by x i1n xi212 are banach spaces consider the space of all continuous functions  ab k defined on a closed interval ab  this space becomes a banach space if an appropriate norm  is defined in it  such a norm may be defined as   sup  x  x ab  otherwise known as the supremum norm  this is indeed a welldefined norm since continuous functions defined on a closed interval are bounded since  is a continuous function on a closed interval then it is bounded and the supremum in the above definition is attained by the weierstrass extreme value theorem so we can replace the supremum by the maximum  in this case the norm is also called the maximum norm the space is complete under this norm and the resulting banach space is denoted by cab  this example can be generalized to the space cx of all continuous functions x k where x is a compact space or to the space of all bounded continuous functions x k where x is any topological space or indeed to the space bx of all bounded functions x k where x is any set  in all these examples we can multiply functions and stay in the same space all these examples are in fact unital banach algebras for any open set c the set a of all bounded analytic functions uc is a complex banach space with respect to the supremum norm the fact that uniform limits of analytic functions are analytic is an easy consequence of moreras theorem if p 1 is a real number we can consider the space of all infinite sequences x1 x2 x3  of elements in k such that the infinite series i xip is finite the pth root of this series value is then defined to be the pnorm of the sequence the space together with this norm is a banach space it is denoted by  p the banach space  consists of all bounded sequences of elements in k the norm of such a sequence is defined to be the supremum of the absolute values of the sequences members again if p 1 is a real number we can consider all functions  ab k such that p is lebesgue integrable the pth root of this integral is then defined to be the norm of  by itself this space is not a banach space because there are nonzero functions whose norm is zero we define an equivalence relation as follows  and g are equivalent if and only if the norm of minusg is zero the set of equivalence classes then forms a banach space it is denoted by lpab it is crucial to use the lebesgue integral and not the riemann integral here because the riemann integral would not yield a complete space  these examples can be generalized see lp spaces for details if x and y are two banach spaces then we can form their direct sum x y which has a natural topological vector space structure but no canonical norm  however it is again a banach space for several equivalent norms for example this construction can be generalized to define pdirect sums of arbitrarily many banach spaces  when there is an infinite number of nonzero summands the space obtained in this way depends upon p if m is a closed linear subspace of the banach space x then the quotient space xm is again a banach space every inner product gives rise to an associated norm the inner product space is called a hilbert space if its associated norm is complete   thus every hilbert space is a banach space by definition the converse statement also holds under certain conditions see below if v and w are banach spaces over the same ground field k the set of all continuous klinear maps a  v  w with respect to this norm lvw is a banach space   this is also true under the less restrictive condition that v be a normed space when v  w the space lv  lv v forms a unital banach algebra the multiplication operation is given by the composition of linear maps if v is a banach space and k is the underlying field either the real or the complex numbers then k is itself a banach space using the absolute value as norm and we can define the dual space v as v lv k the space of continuous linear maps intok  this is again a banach space with the operator norm it can be used to define a new topology on v the weak topology note that the requirement that the maps be continuous is essential if v is infinitedimensional there exist linear maps which are not continuous and therefore not bounded so the space v of linear maps into k is not a banach space the space v which may be called the algebraic dual space to distinguish it from v also induces a weak topology which is finer than that induced by the continuous dual since vthinsp  vlowast there is a natural map fthinsp from v to v the dual of the dual  defined by for example p is reflexive for 11 and  are not reflexive   when pp is q where p and q are related by the formula 1p 1q1   see lp spaces for details as mentioned above every hilbert space is a banach space because by definition a hilbert space is complete with respect to the norm associated with its inner product where a norm and an inner product are said to be associated if v  vv for all v the converse is not always true not every banach space is a hilbert space a necessary and sufficient condition for a banach space v to be associated to an inner product which will then necessarily make v into a hilbert space is the parallelogram identity if the norm of a banach space satisfies this identity the associated inner product which makes it into a hilbert space is given by the polarization identity if v is a real banach space then the polarization identity is the necessity of this condition follows easily from the properties of an inner product  to see that it is sufficientthat the parallelogram law implies that the form defined by the polarization identity is indeed a complete inner productone verifies algebraically that this form is additive whence it follows by induction that the form is linear over the integers and rationals   then since every real is the limit of some cauchy sequence of rationals the completeness of the norm extends the linearity to the whole real line   in the complex case one can check also that the bilinear form is linear over i in one argument and conjugate linear in the other it follows from the completeness of banach spaces and the baire category theorem that a hamel basis of an infinitedimensional banach space is uncountable several concepts of a derivative may be defined on a banach space  see the articles on the frchet derivative and the gteaux derivative several important spaces in functional analysis for instance the space of all infinitely often differentiable functions r  r or the space of all distributions on r are complete but are not normed vector spaces and hence not banach spaces  in frchet spaces one still has a complete metric while lfspaces are complete uniform vector spaces arising as limits of frchet spaces 
bragi snorri sturluson writes in the gylfaginning after describing odin thor and baldr in skldskaparml snorri writes that bragi is odins son is clearly mentioned only here and in some versions of a list of the sons of odin see sons of odin but wishson in stanza 16 of the lokasenna could mean odins son and is translated by hollander as odins kin  bragis mother is never named if bragis mother is frigg then frigg is somewhat dismissive of bragi in the lokasenna in stanza 27 when frigg complains that if she had a son in girs hall as brave as baldr then loki would have to fight for his life in that poem bragi at first forbids loki to enter the hall but is overruled by odin loki then gives a greeting to all gods and goddesses who are in the hall save to bragi bragi generously offers his sword horse and an arm ring as peace gift but loki only responds by accusing bragi of cowardice of being the most afraid to fight of any of the sir and elves within the hall  bragi responds that if they were outside the hall he would have lokis head but loki only repeats the accusation  when bragis wife iunn attempts to calm bragi loki accuses her of embracing her brothers slayer a reference to matters that have not survived it may be that bragi had slain iunns brother a passage in the poetic edda poem sigrdrfuml describes runes being graven on the sun on the ear of one of the sunhorses and on the hoofs of the other on sleipnirs teeth on bears paw on eagles beak on wolfs claw and on several other things including on bragis tongue  then the runes are shaved off and the shavings are mixed with mead and sent abroad so that sir have some elves have some vanir have some and men have some these being beech runes and birth runes ale runes and magic runes the meaning of this is obscure the first part of snorri sturlusons skldskaparml is a dialogue between gir and bragi about the nature of poetry particularly skaldic poetry  bragi tells the origin of the mead of poetry from the blood of kvasir and how odin obtained this mead he then goes on to discuss various poetic metaphors known as kennings snorri sturluson clearly distinguishes the god bragi from the mortal skald bragi boddason whom he often mentions separately  bragi boddason is discussed below the appearance of bragi in the lokasenna indicates that if these two bragis were originally the same they have become separated for that author also or that chronology has become very muddled and bragi boddason has been relocated to mythological time  compare the appearance of the welsh taliesin in the second branch of the mabinogi  legendary chronology sometimes does become muddled  whether bragi the god originally arose as a deified version of bragi boddason was much debated in the 19th century especially by the german scholars eugen mogk and sophus bugge the debate remains undecided in the poem eirksml odin in valhalla hears the coming of the dead norwegian king eric bloodaxe and his host and bids the heroes sigmund and sinfjtli rise to greet him  bragi is then mentioned questioning how odin knows that it is eric and why odin has let such a king die  in the poem hkonarml hkon the good is taken to valhalla by the valkyrie gndul and odin sends hermr and bragi to greet him  in these poems bragi could be either a god or a dead hero in valhalla attempting to decide is further confused because hermr also seems to be sometimes the name of a god and sometimes the name of a hero  that bragi was also the first to speak to loki in the lokasenna as loki attempted to enter the hall might be a parallel it might have been useful and customary that a man of great eloquence and versed in poetry should greet those entering a hall in the prose edda snorri sturluson quotes many stanzas attributed to bragi boddason the old bragi boddason inn gamli a court poet who served several swedish kings ragnar lodbrok sten beli and bjrn at hauge who reigned in the first half of the 9th century  this bragi was reckoned as the first skaldic poet and was certainly the earliest skaldic poet then remembered by name whose verse survived in memory snorri especially quotes passages from bragis ragnarsdrpa a poem supposedly composed in honor of the famous legendary viking ragnar lodbrk hairybreeches describing the images on a decorated shield which ragnar had given to bragi the images included thors fishing for jrmungandr gefjuns ploughing of zealand from the soil of sweden the attack of hamdir and sorli against king jrmunrekk and the neverending battle between hedin and hgni bragi from whom the bragnings are sprung that is the race of hlfdan the generous of the bragnings as a race and of hlfdan the generous nothing else is known  however bragning is often like some others of these dynastic names used in poetry as a general word for king or ruler in the eddic poem helgakvia hundingsbana ii bragi hgnason his brother dag and his sister sigrn were children of hgne the king of east gtaland the poem relates how sigmunds son helgi hundingsbane agreed to take sigrn daughter of hgni as his wife against her unwilling betrothal to hodbrodd son of granmar the king of sdermanland in the subsequent battle of frekastein probably one of the 300 hill forts of sdermanland as stein meant hill fort against hgni and grammar all the chieftains on granmars side are slain including bragi except for bragis brother dag 
bipyramid an ngonal bipyramid or dipyramid is a polyhedron formed by joining an ngonal pyramid and its mirror image basetobase the referenced ngon in the name of the bipyramids is not an external face but an internal one existing on the primary symmetry plane which connects the two pyramid halves the facetransitive bipyramids are the dual polyhedra of the uniform prisms and will generally have isosceles triangle faces a bipyramid can be projected on a sphere or globe as n equally spaced lines of longitude going from pole to pole and bisected by a line around the equator bipyramid faces projected as spherical triangles represent the fundamental domains in the dihedral symmetry dnh the volume of a bipyramid is v  frac23 bh where b is the area of the base and h the height from the base to the apex   this works for any location of the apex provided that h is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane which contains the base the volume of a bipyramid whose base is a regular nsided polygon with side length s and whose height is h is therefore only three kinds of bipyramids can have all edges of the same length which implies that all faces are equilateral triangles and thus the bipyramid is a deltahedron the triangular tetragonal and pentagonal bipyramids the tetragonal bipyramid with identical edges or regular octahedron counts among the platonic solids while the triangular and pentagonal bipyramids with identical edges count among the johnson solids j12 and j13 if the base is regular and the line through the apexes intersects the base at its center the symmetry group of the nagonal bipyramid has dihedral symmetry dnh of order 4n except in the case of a regular octahedron which has the larger octahedral symmetry group oh of order 48 which has three versions of d4h as subgroups the rotation group is dn of order 2n except in the case of a regular octahedron which has the larger symmetry group o of order 24 which has three versions of d4 as subgroups selfintersecting bipyramids exist with a star polygon central figure defined by triangular faces connecting each polygon edge to these two points for example a pentagrammic dipyramid is an isohedral star polyhedron composed of 10 intersecting isoceles triangles it is the dual to the pentagrammic prism in general a bipyramid can be seen as an npolytope constructed with a n1polytope in a hyperplane with two points in opposite directions equal distance perpendicular from the hyperplane if the n1polytope is a regular polytope it will have identical pyramids facets 
bootstrapping the term is often attributed to rudolf erich raspes story the surprising adventures of baron munchausen where the main character pulls himself out of a swamp by his hair specifically his pigtail but the baron does not in fact pull himself out by his bootstraps  instead the phrase appears to have originated in the early 19th century united states particularly in the sense pull oneself over a fence by ones bootstraps from a similar tall tale tall boots may have a tab loop or handle at the top known as a bootstrap allowing one to use fingers or a tool to provide greater force in pulling the boots on the saying to pull yourself up by your bootstraps was already in use during the 19th century as an example of an impossible task   bootstrap as a metaphor meaning to better oneself by ones own unaided efforts was in use in 1922  this metaphor spawned additional metaphors for a series of selfsustaining processes that proceed without external help the computer term bootstrap began as a metaphor in the 1950s  in computers pressing a bootstrap button caused a hardwired program to read a bootstrap program from an input unit and then execute the bootstrap program which read more program instructions and became a selfsustaining process that proceeded without external help from manually entered instructions   as a computing term bootstrap has been used since at least 1958 the bootstrap concept was used in the ibm 701 computer 19521956 which had a load button which initiated reading of the first 36bit word from a punched card in a card reader or from a magnetic tape unit or drum unit predecessor of the hard disk drive the left 18bit halfword was then executed as an instruction which read additional words into memory the term was also championed by doug engelbart to refer to his belief that organizations could better evolve by improving the process they use for improvement thus obtaining a compounding effect over time  his sri team that developed the nls hypertext system applied this strategy by using the tool theyd developed to improve the tool the development of compilers for new programming languages first developed in an existing language but then rewritten in the new language and compiled by itself is another example of the bootstrapping notion bootstrapping in business is to start a business without external helpcapital   startups that bootstrap their business fund development of their company through internal cash flow and are cautious with their expenses  generally at the start of a venture a small amount of money will be set aside for the bootstrap process richard dawkins in his book river out of eden used the computer bootstrapping concept to explain how biological cells differentiate  different cells receive different combinations of chemicals which switch on different combinations of genes and some genes work to switch other genes on or off   and so the bootstrapping continues until we have the full repertoire of different kinds of cells bootstrapping analysis gives a way to judge the strength of support for nodes on phylogenetic trees a number is presented by each node which reflects the percentage of bootstrap trees which also resolve that clade in law bootstrapping is a rule preventing the admission of hearsay evidence in conspiracy cases in linguistics bootstrapping is a theory of language acquisition in statistics bootstrapping is a resampling technique used to obtain estimates of summary statistics in machine learning bootstrapping is a technique used to iteratively improve a classifiers performance in physics bootstrapping is using very general consistency criteria to determine the form of a quantum theory from some assumptions on the spectrum of particles in electronics bootstrapping is a form of positive feedback in analog circuit design 
batavigermanictribe the batavi were an ancient germanic tribe originally part of the chatti reported by tacitus to have lived around the rhine delta in the area that is currently the netherlands an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of gaul and also of a neighbouring island surrounded by the ocean in front and by the river rhine in the rear and on either side tacitus historiae iv   this led to the latin name of insula batavorum for the area the same name is applied to several military units originally raised among the batavi the tribal name probably a derivation from batawj good island from germanic bat good excellent and awj island land near water refers to the regions fertility today known as the fruitbasket of the netherlands the betuwe finds of wooden tablets show that at least some were literate the batavi were mentioned by julius caesar in his commentary commentarii de bello gallico as living on an island formed by the rhine river after it splits one arm being the waal the other the lower rhineold rhine the strategic position to wit the high bank of the waalwhich offered an unimpeded view far into germania transrhenana germania beyond the rhinewas recognized first by drusus who built a massive fortress castra and a headquarters praetorium in imperial style the latter was in use until the batavian revolt archeological evidence suggests they lived in small villages composed of 6 to 12 houses in the very fertile lands between the rivers and lived by agriculture and cattleraising  finds of horse skeletons in graves suggest a strong equestrian preoccupation  on the south bank of the waal in what is now nijmegen a roman administrative center was built called oppidum batavorum an oppidum was a fortified warehouse where a tribes treasures were stored and guarded  this centre was razed during the batavian revolt the batavi the name is believed to derive from a west germanic root also present in better possibly meaning superior men moved into the betuwe in the late 1st century bc the previous inhabitants of the area were celticspeaking gauls as evidenced by the two latinised celtic names for their chief town  batavodurum and noviomagus nijmegen neth it is unclear whether the existing inhabitants were simply subjugated with the batavi forming a ruling elite or the existing inhabitants simply displaced  for this reason it is also uncertain whether the batavi remained germanicspeaking or adopted the belgic gallic tongue of the indigenes the first batavi commander we know of is named chariovalda who led a charge across the visurgin weser against the cherusci led by arminius during the campaigns of germanicus in germania transrhenana annales ii 11 tacitus de origine et situ germanorum xxix described the batavi as the bravest of the tribes of the area hardened in the germanic wars with cohorts under their own commanders transferred to britannia they retained the honour of the ancient association with the romans not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the romans only for war  they furnished to the empire nothing but men and arms tacitus remarked  wellregarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimmingfor men and horses could cross the rhine without losing formation according to tacitus dio cassius describes this surprise tactic employed by aulus plautius against the barbariansthe british celts at the battle of the river medway 43 it is uncertain how they were able to accomplish this feat the late 4th century writer on roman military affairs vegetius mentions soldiers using reed rafts drawn by leather leads to transport equipment across rivers but the sources suggest the batavi were able to swim across rivers actually wearing full armour and weapons  this would only have been possible by the use of some kind of buoyancy device  ammianus marcellinus mentions that the cornuti regiment swam across a river floating on their shields as on a canoe 357  since the shields were wooden they may have provided sufficient buoyancy the batavi also provided a contingent for the emperors horse guard numerous altars and tombstones of the cohorts of batavi dating to the 2nd century and 3rd century have been found along hadrians wall notably at castlecary and carrawburgh germany yugoslavia hungary romania and austria despite the alliance one of the highranking batavi julius paullus to give him his roman name was executed by fonteius capito on a false charge of rebellion  his kinsman gaius julius civilis was paraded in chains in rome before nero though he was acquitted by galba he was retained at rome and when he returned to his kin in the year of upheaval in the roman empire 69 he headed a batavian rebellion he managed to capture castra vetera the romans lost two legions while two others i germanica and xvi gallica were controlled by the rebels the rebellion became a real threat to the empire when the conflict escalated to northern gaul and germania the roman army retaliated and invaded the insula batavorum a bridge was built over the river nabalia where the warring parties approached each other on both sides to negotiate peace the narrative was told in great detail in tacitus history book iv although unfortunately the narrative breaks off abruptly at the climax  following the uprising legio x gemina was housed in a stone castra to keep an eye on the batavians the batavi were still mentioned in 355 during the reign of constantius ii 317  361 when their island was already dominated by the salii a frankish tribe that had sought roman protection there in 297 after having been expelled from their own country by the saxons constantius gallus added inhabitants of batavia to his legions of whose discipline we still make use it has been assumed they merged with the salii shortly before or after and after having been expelled by another tribe it has been proposed this was the chamavi shared their subsequent migration to toxandria an ancient name for current brabant after 358 in the late roman army there was a unit called batavi in the 16thcentury invention of a suitably antique origin myth for the dutch people that would be expressive of their selfidentification as separate from their neighbors in the national struggle with spain of the eighty years war for dutch independence the batavians came to be regarded as their eponymous ancestors the mix of fancy and fact in the cronyke van hollandt zeelandt ende vriesland called the divisiekronike first published in 1517 brought the spare remarks in tacitus  newlyrediscovered germania to a popular public it was being reprinted as late as 1802  contemporary dutch virtues of independence fortitude and industry were rendered fully recognizable among the batavians in more scholarly history represented in hugo grotius liber de antiquitate republicae batavicorum 1610  the myth was perpetuated by romeyn de hooghes spiegel van staat der vereenigden nederlanden mirror of the state of the united netherlands 1706 which also ran to many editions and it was revived in the atmosphere of romantic nationalism in the late eighteenthcentury reforms that saw a shortlived batavian republic and in the colony of the dutch east indies a capital now jakarta that was named batavia modern variants of the batavian founding myth are made more credible by pointing out that the batavians were only part of the ancestry of the dutch people together with the frisians franks and saxons and by tracing patterns of dna echoes of this supposed cultural continuity may still be found in popularisations of the history that follows 
bilinearmap let v w and x be three vector spaces over the same base field f a bilinear map is a function in other words if we hold the first entry of the bilinear map fixed while letting the second entry vary the result is a linear operator and similarly if we hold the second entry fixed if v  w and we have bvw  bwv for all vw in v then we say that b is symmetric the case where x is f and we have a bilinear form is particularly useful see for example scalar product inner product and quadratic form the definition works without any changes if instead of vector spaces we use modules over a commutative ring r it also can be easily generalized to nary functions where the proper term is multilinear for the case of a noncommutative base ring r and a right module mr and a left module rn we can define a bilinear map b  m times n rarr t where t is an abelian group such that for any n in n m rarr bm n is a group homomorphism and for any m in m n rarr bm n is a group homomorphism too and which also satisfies a first immediate consequence of the definition is that bxyo the set lvwx of all bilinear maps is a linear subspace of the space viz vector space module of all maps from vw into x if vwx are finitedimensional then so is lvwx for xf ie bilinear forms the dimension of this space is dimvdimw while the space lvwk of linear forms is of dimension dimvdimw  to see this choose a basis for v and w then each bilinear map can be uniquely represented by the matrix beifj and vice versa now if x is a space of higher dimension we obviously have dimlvwxdimvdimwdimx 
betalactam a betalactam ring lactam is a lactam with a heteroatomic ring structure consisting of three carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom a lactam is a cyclic amide the betalactam ring is part of the structure of several antibiotic families the principal ones being the penicillins cephalosporins carbapenems and monobactams which are therefore also called betalactam antibiotics  these antibiotics work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis  this has a lethal effect on bacteria especially on grampositive ones  bacteria can however become resistant against betalactam antibiotics by expressing betalactamase the first synthetic lactam was prepared by hermann staudinger in 1907 by reaction of the schiff base of aniline and benzaldehyde with diphenylketene in a 22cycloaddition because of the popularity of betalactam drugs certain bacteria have been able to develop countermeasures to traditional drug therapies an enzyme called betalactamase is present in many different types of bacteria which serves to break the beta lactam ring which effectively nullifies the antibiotics effectiveness an example such enzyme is the ndm1 discovered in 2009 as a response to bacterial resistance to betalactam drugs there are drugs such as augmentincla that are designed to disable the betalactamase enzyme   augmentincla fgp is made of amoxicillin a betalactam antibiotic and clavulanic acid a betalactamase inhibitor the clavulanic acid is designed to overwhelm all betalactamase enzymes bind irreversibly to them and effectively serve as an antagonist so that the amoxicillin is not affected by the betalactamase enzymes as a response to increased efficacy of betalactamase some bacteria have changed the proteins that betalactam antibiotics bind the penicillinbinding proteins pbps since the pbps no longer recognize the betalactams the antibiotics are in essence useless  this is the mechanism behind the methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus mrsa penicillin a betalactam covalently binds to and inactivates a bacteriums transpeptidase enzymes   transpeptidase enzymes normally crosslink ie connect posts of 4 stacked amino acids into a fence which is the peptide part of peptidoglycan the rest of the structure is linked sugars that sit on top of the fence and further link the posts   peptidoglycan is the outermost and primary component of the cell wall which protects and coats in grampositive bacteria like streptococcus and staphylococcus transpeptidase or any other protein that binds to penicilin is known as a penicillinbinding protein or pbp pbps vary in their affinity for binding penicillin or other betalactam antibiotics the amount of pbps varies among bacterial species the most common sideeffects of betalactams include allergic reactions and gastrointestinal upset   see individual drug entries for details 
bankofengland the bank of england formally the governor and company of the bank of england is despite its name the central bank of the whole of the united kingdom and is the model on which most modern large central banks have been based it was established in 1694 to act as the english governments banker and to this day it still acts as the banker for hm government the bank was privately owned and operated from its foundation in 1694  it was subordinated to the treasury after 1931 in making policy and was nationalised in 1946 in 1997 it became an independent public organisation wholly owned by the government with independence in setting monetary policy the bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in england and wales although not in scotland northern ireland the isle of man or the channel islands the banks monetary policy committee has devolved responsibility for managing the monetary policy of the country the treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances but such orders must be endorsed by parliament within 28 days the banks headquarters has been located in londons main financial district the city of london on threadneedle street since 1734   it is sometimes known by the metonym the old lady of threadneedle street or simply the old lady the current governor of the bank of england is mervyn king who took over on 30 june 2003 from sir edward george as well as the london offices the bank of england also has secondary offices on king street in leeds englands crushing defeat by france the dominant naval power in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 battle of beachy head became the catalyst to britain rebuilding itself as a global power   england had no choice but to build a powerful navy if it was to regain global power  as there were no public funds available in 1694 a private institution the bank of england was set up to supply money to the king 12m was raised in 12 days half of this was used to rebuild the navy as a sideeffect the huge industrial effort needed started to transform the economy from iron works making nails to agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the royal navy this helped the new united kingdom england and scotland were formally united in 1707 to become prosperous and powerful   together with the power of the navy this made britain the dominant world power in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the establishment of the bank was devised by charles montagu 1st earl of halifax in 1694 to the plan which had been proposed by william paterson three years before but had not been acted upon he proposed a loan of 12m to the government in return the subscribers would be incorporated as the governor and company of the bank of england with longterm banking privileges including the issue of notes the royal charter was granted on 27 july through the passage of the tonnage act of 1694  public finances were in so dire a condition at the time that the terms of the loan were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8 per annum and there was also a service charge of 4000 per annum for the management of the loan the first governor was sir john houblon who is depicted in the 50 note issued in 1994  the charter was renewed in 1742 1764 and 1781 the banks original home was in walbrook in the city of london where during the buildings reconstruction in 1954 archaeologists found the remains of a roman temple to mithras mithras was rather fittingly worshipped as being the god of contracts the mithraeum ruins are perhaps the most famous of all twentiethcentury roman discoveries in the city of london and can now be viewed by the public in 1734 the bank of england moved to its current location on threadneedle street and thereafter slowly acquired neighbouring land to create the edifice seen today  sir herbert bakers rebuilding of the bank of england demolishing most of sir john soanes earlier building was described by architectural historian nikolaus pevsner as the greatest architectural crime in the city of london of the twentieth century when the idea and reality of the national debt came about during the 18th century this was also managed by the bank  by the charter renewal in 1781 it was also the bankers bank keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until 26 february 1797 when war had so diminished gold reserves that the government prohibited the bank from paying out in gold  this prohibition lasted until 1821 the 1844 bank charter act tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves and gave the bank sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes  private banks which had previously had that right retained it provided that their headquarters were outside london and that they deposited security against the notes that they issued a few english banks continued to issue their own notes until the last of them was taken over in the 1930s the scottish and northern irish private banks still have that right britain remained on the gold standard until 1931 when the gold and foreign exchange reserves were transferred to the treasury but their management was still handled by the bank in 1870 the bank was given responsibility for interest rate policy during the governorship of montagu norman which lasted from 1920 to 1944 the bank made deliberate efforts to move away from commercial banking and become a central bank  in 1946 shortly after the end of normans tenure the bank was nationalised by the labour government after 1945 the bank pursued the multiple goals of keynesian economics especially easy money and low interest rates to support aggregate demand it tried to keep a fixed exchange rate and attempted to deal with inflation and sterling weakness by credit and exchange controls in 1977 the bank set up a wholly owned subsidiary called bank of england nominees limited boen a private limited company with 2 of its 100 1 shares issued  according to its memorandum  articles of association its objectives are to act as nominee or agent or attorney either solely or jointly with others for any person or persons partnership company corporation government state organisation sovereign province authority or public body or any group or association of them  bank of england nominees limited was granted an exemption by edmund dell secretary of state for trade from the disclosure requirements under section 279 of the companies act 1976  because it was considered undesirable that the disclosure requirements should apply to certain categories of shareholders  the bank of england is also protected by its royal charter status and the official secrets act on 6 may 1997 following the 1997 general election which brought another labour government to power it was announced by the chancellor of the exchequer gordon brown that the bank of england would be granted operational independence over monetary policy  under the terms of the bank of england act 1998 which came into force on 1 june 1998 the banks monetary policy committee was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the governments stated retail prices index rpi inflation target of 25  the target has now changed to 2 since the consumer price index cpi replaced the retail prices index as the treasurys inflation index if inflation overshoots or undershoots the target by more than 1 the governor has to write a letter to the chancellor of the exchequer explaining why and how he will remedy the situation the handing over of monetary policy to the bank of england had featured as a key plank of the liberal democrats economic policy since the 1992 general election a conservative mp nicholas budgen had also proposed this as a private members bill in 1996 but the bill failed as it had neither the support of the government nor that of the opposition more recently in 2007 the bank of england in its role as lender of last resort helped support northern rock a specialist mortgage lender that suddenly became unable to rely on wholesale market borrowing to finance its lending operation following the 2007 subprime mortgage crisis the role of supporting northern rock and other uk banks caught up in the late 2000s financial crisis is now performed by uk financial investments limited set up by the uk government the bank of england of course still remains lender of last resort in the case of any further unexpected shock to the uk financial system the bank of england performs all the functions of a central bank the most important of these is supposed to be maintaining price stability and supporting the economic policies of the british government thus promoting economic growth  there are two main areas which are tackled by the bank to ensure it carries out these functions efficiently the bank works together with several other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability including the 1997 memorandum of understanding describes the terms under which the bank the treasury and the fsa work toward the common aim of increased financial stability  in 2010 the incoming chancellor announced his intention to merge the fsa back into the bank the bank of england acts as the governments banker and as such it maintains the governments consolidated fund account it also manages the countrys foreign exchange and gold reserves the bank also acts as the bankers bank especially in its capacity as a lender of last resort the bank of england has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in england and wales scottish and northern irish banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes but they must be backed one to one with deposits in the bank of england excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in 1845  the bank decided to sell its bank note printing operations to de la rue in december 2002 under the advice of close brothers corporate finance ltd since 1997 the monetary policy committee mpc has had the responsibility for setting the official interest rate  however with the decision to grant the bank operational independence responsibility for government debt management was transferred to the new uk debt management office in 1998 which also took over government cash management in 2000  computershare took over as the registrar for uk government bonds known as gilts from the bank at the end of 2004 the bank used to be responsible for the regulation and supervision of the banking industry although this responsibility was transferred to the financial services authority in june 1998 in order to help maintain economic stability the bank attempts to broaden understanding of its role both through regular speeches and publications by senior bank figures and through a wider education strategy aimed at the general public it maintains a free museum and runs the target two point zero competition for alevel students the bank has operated since january 2009 an asset purchase facility apf to buy highquality assets financed by the   issue of treasury bills and the dmos cash management operations and thereby improve liquidity in the credit markets it has since march 2009 also provided the mechanism by which the banks policy of quantitative easing qe is achieved under the auspices of the mpc along with the managing the 200billion of qe funds the apf continues to operate its corporate facilities  both are  undertaken by a subsidiary company of the bank of england the bank of england  asset purchase facility fund limited beapff the bank of england has issued banknotes since 1694  notes were originally handwritten although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone  notes were fully printed from 1855  until 1928 all notes were white notes printed in black and with a blank reverse  in the 18th and 19th centuries white notes were issued in 1 and 2 denominations  during the 20th century white notes were issued in denominations between 5 and 1000  the bank issued notes for ten shillings and one pound for the first time on 22 november 1928 when the bank took over responsibility for these denominations from the treasury which had issued notes of these denominations three days after the declaration of war in 1914 in order to remove gold coins from circulation during the second world war the german operation bernhard attempted to counterfeit various denominations between 5 and 50 producing 500000 notes each month in 1943  the original plan was to parachute the money on the uk in an attempt to destabilise the british economy but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay german agents operating throughout europe although most fell into allied hands at the end of the war forgeries frequently appeared for years afterwards which led banknote denominations above 5 to be removed from circulation in 2006 a sum in excess of 53million in banknotes belonging to the bank was stolen from a depot in tonbridge kent 
bashunixshell fox began coding bash on january 10 1988 bash is a posix shell with a number of extensions it is the shell for the gnu operating system from the gnu project it can be run on most unixlike operating systems it is the default shell on most systems built on top of the linux kernel as well as on mac os x and darwin it has also been ported to microsoft windows using subsystem for unixbased applications sua or posix emulation provided by cygwin and msys it has been ported to dos by the djgpp project and to novell netware the bash command syntax is a superset of the bourne shell command syntax the vast majority of bourne shell scripts can be executed by bash without modification with the exception of bourne shell scripts stumbling into fringe syntax behavior interpreted differently in bash or attempting to run a system command matching a newer bash builtin etc   bash command syntax includes ideas drawn from the korn shell ksh and the c shell csh such as command line editing command history the directory stack the random and ppid variables and posix command substitution syntax  when used as an interactive command shell and pressing the tab key bash automatically uses command line completion to match partly typed program names filenames and variable names bashs syntax has many extensions which the bourne shell lacks  bash can perform integer calculations without spawning external processes unlike the bourne shell  bash uses the  command and the  variable syntax for this purpose  bash syntax simplifies io redirection in ways that are not possible in the traditional bourne shell  for example bash can redirect standard output stdout and standard error stderr at the same time using the  operator  this is simpler to type than the bourne shell equivalent command  file 21 when using the function keyword bash function declarations are not compatible with bournekornposix scripts the korn shell has the same problem when using function but bash accepts the same function declaration syntax as the bourne and korn shells and is posix conformant   due to these and other differences bash shell scripts are rarely runnable under the bourne or korn shell interpreters unless deliberately written with that compatibility in mind which is becoming less common as linux becomes more widespread but in posix mode bash supports here documents just as the bourne shell always has  however since version 205b bash can redirect standard input stdin from a here string using the  operator bash 30 supports inprocess regular expression matching using a syntax reminiscent of perl bash 40 supports associative arrays  brace expansion also called alternation is a feature copied from the c shell that generates the set of alternative combinations the generated results need not exist as files the results of each expanded string are not sorted and left to right order is preserved brace expansions should not be used in portable shell scripts because the bourne shell will not produce the same output when brace expansion is combined with wildcards the braces are expanded first then the resulting wildcards are substituted normally   hence a listing of jpeg and png images in the current directory could be obtained with when bash starts it executes the commands in a variety of different scripts when bash is invoked as an interactive login shell it first reads and executes commands from the file etcprofile if that file exists  after reading that file it looks for bashprofile bashlogin and profile in that order and reads and executes commands from the first one that exists and is readable when a login shell exits bash reads and executes commands from the file bashlogout if it exists when an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started bash reads and executes commands from bashrc if that file exists  this may be inhibited by using the norc option the rcfile file option will force bash to read and execute commands from file instead of bashrc some versions of unix have especially contorted system scripts for bash which will effectively violate the documented script load order by loading scripts too early or attempting to combine bash startup with the startup scripts for other shells in various ways shell scripts written with  bashspecific features bashisms will not function on a system using the bourne shell or one of its replacements unless bash is also installed and the script begins with a shebang line of binbash interpreter directive instead of binsh the following shortcuts work when using default emacs key bindings  vibindings can be enabled by running set o vi 
battleofagincourt the battle of agincourt was a major english victory against a numerically superior french army in the hundred years war the battle occurred on friday 25 october 1415 saint crispins day november 3  ns in northern france henry vs victory had a crippling effect on france and started a new period in the war during which henry married the french kings daughter and his son was made heir to the throne of france however his battlefield successes were not capitalised on by his heir henry vi henry v led his troops into battle and participated in handtohand fighting the french king of the time charles vi did not command the french army himself as he suffered from severe repeating illnesses and moderate mental incapacitation  instead the french were commanded by constable charles dalbret and various prominent french noblemen of the armagnac party the battle is notable for the use of the english longbow which henry used in very large numbers with english and welsh longbowmen forming most of his army the battle is also the centrepiece of the play henry v by william shakespeare henry v invaded france following the failure of negotiations with the french he claimed the title of king of france through his greatgrandfather edward iii although in practice the english kings were generally prepared to renounce this claim if the french would acknowledge the english claim on aquitaine and other french lands the terms of the treaty of bretigny he initially called a great council in the spring of 1414 to discuss going to war with france but the lords insisted that he should negotiate further and moderate his claims  in the following negotiations henry said that he would give up his claim to the french throne if the french would pay the 16 million crowns outstanding from the ransom of john ii who had been captured at the battle of poitiers in 1356 and concede english ownership of the lands of normandy touraine anjou brittany and flanders as well as aquitaine henry would marry princess catherine the young daughter of charles vi and receive a dowry of 2 million crowns the french responded with what they considered the generous terms of marriage with princess catherine a dowry of 600000 crowns and an enlarged aquitaine by 1415 negotiations had ground to a halt with the english claiming that the french had mocked their claims and ridiculed henry himself  in december 1414 the english parliament was persuaded to grant henry a double subsidy a tax at twice the traditional rate to recover his inheritance from the french on 19 april 1415 henry again asked the great council to sanction war with france and this time they agreed henrys army landed in northern france on 13 august 1415 and besieged the port of harfleur with an army of about 12000  the siege took longer than expected the town surrendered on 22 september and the english army did not leave until 8 october the campaign season was coming to an end and the english army had suffered many casualties through disease  henry decided to move most of his army roughly 9000 to the port of calais the english stronghold in northern france where they could reequip over the winter the french had raised an army during the siege which assembled around rouen this was not strictly a feudal army but an army paid through a system similar to the english the french hoped to raise 9000 troops but the army was not ready in time to relieve harfleur after henry v marched to the north the french moved to blockade them along the river somme they were successful for a time forcing henry to move south away from calais to find a ford the english finally crossed the somme south of pronne at bthencourt and voyennes and resumed marching north  without the river protection the french were hesitant to force a battle they shadowed henrys army while calling a semonce des nobles calling on local nobles to join the army  by 24 october both armies faced each other for battle but the french declined hoping for the arrival of more troops the next day the french initiated negotiations as a delaying tactic but henry ordered his army to advance and to start a battle that given the state of his army he would have preferred to avoid the english had very little food had marched 260 miles in twoandahalf weeks were suffering from sickness such as dysentery and faced much larger numbers of well equipped french men at arms  henry needed to get to the safety of calais and knew that if he waited the french would gain yet more reinforcements the battle was fought in the narrow strip of open land formed between the woods of tramecourt and agincourt close to the modern village of azincourt the french army was positioned at the northern exit so as to bar the way to calais the two armies spent the night of 24 october on open ground early on the 25th henry deployed his army approximately 1500 menatarms and 7000 longbowmen across a 750yard part of the defile the army was organised into three battles or divisions the vanguard led by the duke of york the main battle led by henry himself and the rearguard led by lord camoys in addition sir thomas erpingham one of henrys most experienced household knights had a role in marshalling the archers it is likely that the english adopted their usual battle line of longbowmen on either flank menatarms and knights in the centre they may also have deployed some archers in the centre of the line the english menatarms in plate and mail were placed shoulder to shoulder four deep the english and welsh archers on the flanks drove pointed wooden stakes into the ground at an angle to force cavalry to veer off  this use of stakes may have been inspired by the battle of nicopolis of 1398 where forces of the ottoman empire used the tactic against french cavalry one english account describes the day before the battle as a day of remorse in which the english soldiers cleansed themselves of their sins to avoid hell if they died  french accounts state that henry v gave a speech before the battle reassuring his nobles that if the french prevailed the english nobles would be spared to be captured and ransomed the common soldiers however would have no such luck and he told them that they had better fight for their lives by contrast the french were confident that they would prevail and were eager to fight the french believed they would triumph over the english not only because their force was larger fresher and better equipped but also because the large number of noble menatarms would have considered themselves superior to the large number of archers in the english army who the french based on their experience in living memory of using and facing archers considered relatively insignificant the chronicler edmond de dyntner stated that there were ten french nobles against one english ignoring the archers completely the french were arrayed in three lines or battles the first line was led by constable dalbret marshal boucicault and the dukes of orlans and bourbon with attached cavalry wings under the count of vendme and sir clignet de brebant the second line was commanded by the dukes of bar and alenon and the count of nevers the third line was under the counts of dammartin and fauconberg the burgundian chronicler jehan de waurin writes that there were 8000 menatarms 4000 archers and 1500 crossbowmen in the vanguard with two wings of 600 and 800 mounted menatarms and the main battle having as many knights esquires and archers as in the vanguard with the rearguard containing all of the rest of the menatarms the herald of berry uses somewhat different figures of 4800 menatarms in the first line 3000 men in the second line with two wings containing 600 mounted menatarms each and a total of 10000 menatarms but does not mention a third line approximately 8000 of the heavily armoured french menatarms fought on foot and needed to close the distance to the english army to engage them in handtohand fighting if they could close the distance however they outnumbered the english menatarms by more than 5to1 and the english longbowmen would not be able to shoot into a mle without risking hitting their own troops  many of the french menatarms had fathers and grandfathers who had been humiliated in previous battles such as crcy and poitiers and the french nobility were determined to get revenge  several french accounts emphasise that the french leaders were so eager to defeat the english and win the ransoms of the english menatarms that they insisted on being in the first line  for example  all the lords wanted to be in the vanguard against the opinion of the constable and the experienced knights there appear to have been thousands of troops in the rearguard containing servants and commoners whom the french were either unable or unwilling to deploy  de waurin gives the total french army size as 50000  he says  they had plenty of archers and crossbowmen but nobody wanted to let them fire sic the reason for this was that the site was so narrow that there was only enough room for the menatarms most of the rearguard played little part in the battle with english and french accounts agreeing that many of the french army fled after seeing so many french nobles killed and captured in the fighting the field of battle was arguably the most significant factor in deciding the outcome the recently ploughed land hemmed in by dense woodland favoured the english both because of its narrowness and because of the thick mud through which the french knights had to walk an analysis by battlefield detectives has looked at the crowd dynamics of the battlefield the 10001500 english menatarms are described as shoulder to shoulder and four deep which implies a tight line about 250300 men long perhaps split in two by a central group of archers the remainder of the field would have been filled with the longbowmen behind their palings the french first line contained menatarms who had no way to outflank the english line the french divided into the three battles one behind the other at their initial starting position could not bring all their forces to bear the initial engagement was between the english army and the first battle line of the french when the second french battle line started their advance the soldiers were pushed closer together and their effectiveness was reduced  casualties in the front line from longbow arrows would also have increased the congestion as the following men would have to walk around the fallen the battlefield detectives episode states that when the density reached four men per square metre soldiers would not even be able to take full steps forward lowering the speed of the advance by 70 and the burgundian sources have a similar passage  in practice there was not enough room for all these men to fight and they were unable to respond effectively when the english longbowmen joined the handtohand fighting  by the time the second french line arrived for a total of about eight thousand men depending on the source the crush would have been even worse the press of men arriving from behind actually hindered those fighting at the front as the battle was fought on a recently ploughed field and there had recently been heavy rain leaving it very muddy it proved very tiring to walk through in full plate armour the french monk of st denis describes the french troops as marching through the middle of the mud where they sank up to their knees  so they were already overcome with fatigue even before they advanced against the enemy the deep soft mud particularly favoured the english force because once knocked to the ground the heavily armoured french knights had a hard time getting back up to fight in the mle  barker 2005 states that several knights encumbered by their armour actually drowned in it  their limited mobility made them easy targets for the volleys from the english archers the mud also increased the ability of the much more lightly armoured english archers to join in handtohand fighting against the french menatarms on the morning of 25 october the french were still waiting for additional troops to arrive the duke of brabant about 2000 men the duke of anjou about 600 men and the duke of brittany 6000 men according to montstrelet were all marching to join the army  this left the french with a question of whether or not to advance towards the english for three hours after sunrise there was no fighting  military textbooks of the time stated everywhere and on all occasions that foot soldiers march against their enemy face to face those who march lose and those who remain standing still and holding firm win  on top of this the french were expecting thousands of men to join them if they waited they were blocking henrys retreat and were perfectly happy to wait for as long as it took  there had even been a suggestion that the english would run away rather than give battle when they saw that they would be fighting so many french princes  henrys men on the other hand were already very weary from hunger illness and marching  even though he knew as well as the french did that his army would perform better on the defensive henry was eventually forced to take a calculated risk and move his army further forward to start the battle  this entailed pulling out the long stakes pointed outwards toward the enemy which protected the longbowmen and abandoning his chosen position the use of stakes was an innovation for the english during the battle of crcy for example the archers were instead protected by pits and other obstacles if the french cavalry had charged before the stakes had been hammered back in the result would probably have been disastrous for the english as it was at the battle of patay however the french seem to have been caught off guard by the english advance the tightness of the terrain also seems to have restricted the planned deployment of their forces a battle plan had originally been drawn up which had archers and crossbowmen in front of the menatarms with a cavalry force at the rear specifically designed to fall upon the archers and use their force to break them but in the event the archers and crossbowmen were deployed behind and to the sides of the menatarms where they seem to have played almost no part except possibly for an initial volley of arrows at the start of the battle the cavalry force which could have devastated the english line if it had attacked while they moved their position seems to have charged only after the initial volley of arrows from the english it is unclear whether this is because the french were hoping the english would launch a frontal assault and were surprised when the english instead started shooting from their new defensive position or whether the french mounted knights simply did not react fast enough to the english advance  french chroniclers agree that when the mounted charge did come it did not contain as many men as it should have gilles le bouvier states that some had wandered off to warm themselves and others were walking or feeding their horses in any case within extreme bowshot from the french line approximately 300 yards the longbowmen dug in their stakes and then opened the engagement with a barrage of arrows the french cavalry despite being somewhat disorganised and not at full numbers charged the longbowmen but it was a disaster with the french knights unable to outflank the longbowmen because of the encroaching woodland and unable to charge through the palings that protected the archers  john keegan argues that the longbows main influence on the battle was at this point armoured only on the head many horses would have become dangerously out of control when struck in the back or flank from the highelevation shots used as the charge started the effect of the mounted charge and then retreat was further to churn up the mud the french had to cross to reach the english juliet barker quotes a contemporary account by a monk of st denis who reports how the panicking horses also galloped back through the advancing infantry scattering them and trampling them down in their headlong flight the burgundian sources similarly say that the mounted menatarms retreated back into the advancing french vanguard the constable himself led the attack of the dismounted french menatarms  french accounts describe their vanguard alone as containing about 5000 menatarms which would have outnumbered the english menatarms by more than 3 to 1 but before they could engage in handtohand fighting they had to cross the muddy field under a bombardment of arrows the plate armour of the french menatarms allowed them to close the 300 yards or so to the english lines while being under what the french monk of saint denis described as a terrifying hail of arrow shot  however they had to lower their visors and bend their heads to avoid being shot in the face the eye and airholes in their helmets were among the weakest points in the armour which restricted both their breathing and their vision and then they had to walk a few hundred yards through thick mud wearing armour weighing 5060 pounds the french menatarms reached the english line and actually pushed it back with the longbowmen continuing to shoot until they ran out of arrows and then dropping their bows and joining the mle implying that the french were able to walk through a hail of tens of thousands of arrows while taking comparatively few casualties but the physical pounding even from nonpenetrating arrows combined with the slog in heavy armour through the mud the heat and lack of oxygen in plate armour with the visor down and the crush of their numbers meant they could scarcely lift their weapons when they finally engaged the english line when the english archers using hatchets swords and other weapons attacked the now disordered and fatigued french the french could not cope with their unarmoured assailants who were much less hindered by the mud the exhausted french menatarms are described as having been knocked to the ground and then unable to get back up  as the mle developed the french second line also joined the attack but they too were swallowed up with the narrow terrain meaning the extra numbers could not be used effectively and french menatarms were taken prisoner or killed in their thousands the fighting lasted about three hours but eventually the leaders of the second line were killed or captured as those of the first line had been the english gesta henrici describes three great heaps of the slain around the three main english standards according to contemporary english accounts henry was directly involved in the handtohand fighting  upon hearing that his youngest brother humphrey duke of gloucester had been wounded in the groin henry took his household guard and stood over his brother in the front rank of the fighting until humphrey could be dragged to safety the king received an axe blow to the head which knocked off a piece of the crown which formed part of his helmet the only french success was an attack on the lightly protected english baggage train with ysembart dazincourt leading a small number of menatarms and varlets plus about 600 peasants seizing some of henrys personal treasures including a crown  whether this was part of a deliberate french plan or an act of local brigandage is unclear from the sources   certainly dazincourt was a local knight but he may have been chosen to lead the attack because of his local knowledge and the lack of availability of a more senior soldier  in some accounts the attack happened towards the end of the battle and led the english to think they were being attacked from the rear  barker following the gesta henrici believed to have been written by an english chaplain who was actually in the baggage train concludes that the attack happened at the start of the battle regardless of when the baggage assault happened there was a point after the initial english victory where henry became alarmed that the french were regrouping for another attack the gesta henrici puts this after the english had overcome the onslaught of the french menatarms and the weary english troops were eyeing the french rearguard in incomparable number and still fresh  le fevre and waurin similarly say that it was signs of the french rearguard regrouping and marching forward in battle order which made the english think they were still in danger in any event henry ordered the slaughter of what was perhaps several thousand french prisoners with only the most illustrious being spared  his fear was that they would rearm themselves with the weapons strewn upon the field and the exhausted english would be overwhelmed  though ruthless it was arguably justifiable given the situation of the battle perhaps surprisingly even the french chroniclers do not criticise him for this  this marked the end of the battle as the french rearguard having seen so many of the french nobility captured and killed fled the battlefield due to a lack of reliable sources it is impossible to give a precise figure for the french and english casualties  however it is clear that though the english were outnumbered their losses were far lower than those of the french the french sources all give 400010000 french dead with up to 1600 english dead the lowest ratio in these french sources has the french losing six times more dead than the english the english sources vary between about 1500 and 11000 for the french dead with english dead put at no more than 100 barker identifies from the available records at least 112 englishmen who died in the fighting including edward of norwich 2nd duke of york a grandson of edward iii but this excludes the wounded  one widely used estimate puts the english casualties at 450 not an insignificant number in an army of about 8500 but far less than the thousands the french lost nearly all of whom were killed or captured  using the lowest french estimate of their own dead of 4000 would imply a ratio of nearly 9 to 1 in favour of the english or over 10 to 1 if the prisoners are included the french suffered heavily  three dukes at least eight counts a viscount and an archbishop died along with numerous other nobles  of the great royal office holders france lost her constable admiral master of the crossbowmen and prvt of the marshals the baillis of nine major northern towns were killed often along with their sons relatives and supporters  in the words of juliet barker the battle cut a great swath through the natural leaders of french society in artois ponthieu normandy picardy  estimates of the number of prisoners vary between 700 and 2200 amongst them the duke of orlans the famous poet charles dorlans and jean le maingre known as boucicault marshal of france almost all these prisoners would have been nobles as the less valuable prisoners were slaughtered although the victory had been militarily decisive its impact was complex it did not lead to further english conquests immediately as henrys priority was to return to england which he did on 16 november to be received in triumph in london on the 23rd   henry returned a conquering hero in the eyes of his subjects and european powers outside of france blessed by god it established the legitimacy of the lancastrian monarchy and the future campaigns of henry to pursue his rights and privileges in france other benefits to the english were longer term   very quickly after the battle the fragile truce between the armagnac and burgundian factions broke down the brunt of the battle had fallen on the armagnacs and it was they who suffered the majority of senior casualties and carried the blame for the defeat the burgundians seized on the opportunity and within 10 days of the battle had mustered their armies and marched on paris this lack of unity in france would allow henry eighteen months to prepare militarily and politically for a renewed campaign   when that campaign took place it was made easier by the damage done to the political and military structures of normandy by the battle it took several years more campaigning but henry was eventually able to fulfil all his objectives he was recognised by the french in the treaty of troyes 1420 as the regent and heir to the french throne  this was cemented by his marriage to catherine of valois the daughter of king charles vi notable casualties included anne curry in her 2005 book agincourt a new history argues based on research into the surviving administrative records that the french army was about 12000 strong and the english army about 9000 giving odds of 43  by contrast juliet barker in her agincourt the king the campaign the battle also published in 2005 argues the english and welsh were outnumbered at least four to one and possibly as much as six to one she suggests figures of about 6000 for the english and 36000 for the french based on the gesta henricis figures of 5000 archers and 900 menatarms for the english and jehan de waurins statement that the french were six times more numerous than the english the 2009 encyclopdia britannica uses the figures of about 6000 for the english and 20000 to 30000 for the french the 1911 britannica used somewhat different figures of 6000 archers 1000 menatarms and a few thousands of other foot for the english with the french outnumbering them by at least four times having both one of the lowest estimates for the size of the french army and also one of the highest estimates for the size of the english army curry is currently in a minority in suggesting that the odds were as equal as 43  while not necessarily agreeing with the exact numbers curry uses some historians have however given support to her assertion that the french army was much smaller than traditionally thought and the english somewhat bigger  bertrand schnerb a professor of medieval history at the university of lille has said that he thinks the french probably had 1200015000 troops  ian mortimer in his 2009 book 1415  henry vs year of glory notes how curry minimises french numbers by limiting her figures to those in the basic army and a few specific additional companies and maximises english numbers by assuming the numbers sent home from harfleur were no greater than sick lists however he agrees that previous estimates have exaggerated the odds and suggests that the most extreme imbalance which is credible is fifteen thousand french troops against 8100 english a ratio of about twotoone however clifford j rogers professor of history at the united states military academy at west point has recently argued that archival records are too incomplete to substantially change his view that the english were outnumbered about 41 those supporting a greater imbalance have generally put more store by contemporary and especially eyewitness accounts the gesta henrici gives plausible figures for the english of 5000 archers and 900 menatarms but mortimer notes it is wildly inaccurate in stating the english were outnumbered 301 and there have also been doubts as to how much it was written as propaganda for henry v the proportions also seem incorrect as from surviving records we know that henry set out with about four times as many archers as menatarms not five and a half times as many  those who have supported the gesta figures for the english army have generally thought that although the english army may have left harfleur with eight or nine thousand men it is plausible that after weeks of campaigning and disease in hostile territory they would have lost two or three thousand fighting men however mortimer states  despite the trials of the march henry had lost very few men to illness or death and we have independent testimony that no more than 160 had been captured on the way  as mortimer notes the burgundian numbers for the size of the french vanguard of 8000 menatarms in the vanguard with 1400 menatarms in the wings correspond roughly with the figures of ten thousand menatarms recorded by the duke of berrys herald the burgundians also recorded 4000 archers and 1500 crossbowmen in the vanguard although it should be noted that they give the total size of the french army as an implausible 50000 and the numbers they use do not correspond closely to the odds they describe  using very similar numbers jean le fevre states that the english were outnumbered 31 whereas waurin states that the english were outnumbered 61 one particular cause of confusion may have been the number of servants on both sides  mortimer suggests that because there was a much higher proportion of menatarms on the french side the number of noncombatants was much higher  each manatarms could be expected to have a page who would have ridden one of his spare horses the french army would therefore have had about an extra 10000 men as opposed to only 1000 or 1500 extra for the english meaning that the size of the french encampment at 2200025000 was roughly three times the size of the english at about 10000 it is open to debate whether these should all be counted as noncombatants rogers for example accepts that the french probably had about 10000 menatarms but explicitly includes one armed gros valet military servant per french manatarms in his calculation of the odds  there may therefore be less difference between some of these different historians positions on the numerical odds than there initially appears given that the various accounts generally agree that the battle was almost entirely fought between the french menatarms and the english army with french crossbowmen archers and other infantry playing little or no part william shakespeare wrote henry v in 1599   the play features the preparations for the invasion of france the siege of harfleur and the battle of agincourt it has been filmed twice by laurence olivier in 1944 and by kenneth branagh in 1989 a fictional portrayal of an archer nicholas hook in the events and battles leading up to the battle of agincourt bernard cornwells agincourt us title azincourt uk title martha rofhearts 1972 novel cry god for harry  features an account of the agincourt campaign as seen through the eyes of an english manatarms john page the universal soldier is made up of fictionalised accounts of the lives of soldiers through the ages it contains a chapter on william petybon an archer in the agincourt campaign written by arms and armour expert frederick wilkinson a mock trial of henry v for the crimes associated with the slaughter of the prisoners was held in washington dc in march 2010 drawing from both the historical record and shakespeares play   participating as judges were justices samuel alito and ruth bader ginsberg the backstory maintained that a number of previous trials had found henry not guilty and the present court was adjudicating a tort of damages   in fact the trial ranged widely over the whether there was just cause for war and not simply the prisoner issue   although an audience vote was too close to call henry was unanimously found guilty by the court on the basis of evolving standards of civil society dan simmons novel hyperion features a colonel fedmahn kassad who has been training in the force academy where he was immersed in an extremely detailed simulation of the battle of agincourt created by the olympus command school historical tactical network during the battle kassad is saved from a french knight by the mysterious mnemosyne or moneta who becomes his lover there david webers novel out of the dark begins with the battle of agincourt from the point of view of the combatants as well as that of an extraterrestrial survey team which is appalled by the violence in k a applegates animorphs series specifically in the third megamorphs book elfangors secret the protagonists travel back in time to the battle of agincourt along with several other historically significant events paul hoffmans novel the left hand of god heavily draws on the tactics of agincourt in a battle between two very different armies one invading army of redeemers who are numerically inferior weary from marching and riddled with dysentry and other disease and the defending materrazzi who feel the use of archers in battle to be ungentlemanly the result is an emphatic victory for the redeemers 
binomialtheorem in elementary algebra the binomial theorem describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial  according to the theorem it is possible to expand the power xyn into a sum involving terms of the form axbyc where the exponents b and c are nonnegative integers with b  c  n and the coefficient a of each term is a specific positive integer depending on n and b  when an exponent is zero the corresponding power is usually omitted from the term  for example the coefficient a in the term of xbyc is known as the binomial coefficient tbinom nb or tbinom nc the two have the same value these coefficients for varying n and b can be arranged to form pascals triangle  these numbers also arise in combinatorics where tbinom nb gives the number of different combinations of b elements that can be chosen from an nelement set this formula and the triangular arrangement of the binomial coefficients are often attributed to blaise pascal who described them in the 17th century but they were known to many mathematicians who preceded him the 4th century bc greek mathematician euclid mentioned the special case of the binomial theorem for exponent2 as did the 3rd century bc indian mathematician pingala to higher orders a more general binomial theorem and the socalled pascals triangle were known in the 10thcentury ad to indian mathematician halayudha and persian mathematician alkaraji and in the 13th century to chinese mathematician yang hui who all derived similar results according to the theorem it is possible to expand any power of xy into a sum of the form this formula is sometimes referred to as the binomial formula or the binomial identity a variant of the binomial formula is obtained by substituting 1 for x and x for y so that it involves only a single variable   in this form the formula reads the most basic example of the binomial theorem is the formula for square of xy the binomial coefficients 1 2 1 appearing in this expansion correspond to the third row of pascals triangle the coefficients of higher powers of xy correspond to later rows of the triangle the binomial theorem can be applied to the powers of any binomial   for example for a binomial involving subtraction the theorem can be applied as long as the negation of the second term is used   this has the effect of negating every other term of the expansion for positive values of a and b the binomial theorem with n2 is the geometrically evident fact that a square of side a  b can be cut into a square of side a a square of side b and two rectangles with sides a and b  with n3 the theorem states that a cube of side a  b can be cut into a cube of side a a cube of side b three atimesatimesb rectangular boxes and three atimesbtimesb rectangular boxes the coefficients that appear in the binomial expansion are called binomial coefficients   these are usually written  tbinom nk  and pronounced ldquon choose krdquo the coefficient of xnminuskyk is given by the formula the binomial coefficient  tbinom nk  can be interpreted as the number of ways to choose k elements from an nelement set   this is related to binomials for the following reason if we write xyn as a product the coefficient of xy2 in expanding xyn yields the sum of the 2n products of the form e1e2en where each ei is x ory   rearranging factors shows that each product equals xnminuskyk for some k between 0 andn  for a given k the following are proved equal in succession this proves the binomial theorem induction yields another proof of the binomial theorem1   when n0 both sides equal 1 since x01 for all x and binom001 now suppose that 1 holds for a given n we will prove it for n1 for jk0 let fnofxyjk denote the coefficient of xjyk in the polynomial fnofxy by the inductive hypothesis xyn is a polynomial in x and y such that xynjk is binomnk if jkn and 0 otherwise the identity if jkn1 then jminus1kn and jkminus1n so the right hand side is around 1665 isaac newton generalized the formula to allow real exponents other than nonnegative integers and in fact it can be generalized further to complex exponents  in this generalization the finite sum is replaced by an infinite series  in order to do this one needs to give meaning to binomial coefficients with an arbitrary upper index which cannot be done using the above formula with factorials however factoring out nk from numerator and denominator in that formula and replacing n by r which now stands for an arbitrary number one can define this is not the same as  fracrkrk  factorials are typically only defined on natural number arguments but even if you are using factorials generalized eg by the gamma function to noninteger values they are still undefined on the negative integers  to get the usual binomial theorem as a special case of this socalled generalization we had better define the binomial coefficient when r is an integer but in that case rk will be a negative integer for sufficiently large k so one cannot use any formula involving the factorial rk this negative comment about not the same as seems to be needed   people keep coming along and completing this formula with this expression involving factorials missing the point of this section when r is a nonnegative integer the binomial coefficients for kr are zero so 2 specializes to 1 and there are at most r1 nonzero terms   for other values of r the series 2 has an infinite number of nonzero terms at least if x and y are nonzero this is important when one is working with infinite series and would like to represent them in terms of generalized hypergeometric functions taking rminuss leads to a particularly handy but nonobvious formula further specializing to s1 yields the geometric series formula formula 2 can be generalized to the case where x and y are complex numbers   for this version one should assume xy formula 2 is valid also for elements x and y of a banach algebra as long as xyyx xis invertible andyx1 the binomial theorem can be generalized to include powers of sums with more than two terms the general version is combinatorially the multinomial coefficient tbinom nk1cdotskn counts the number of different ways to partition an nelement set into disjoint subsets of sizes k1kn for the complex numbers the binomial theorem can be combined with de moivres formula to yield multipleangle formulas for the sine and cosine   according to de moivres formula using the binomial theorem the expression on the right can be expanded and then the real and imaginary parts can be taken to yield formulas for cosnx and sinnx   for example since de moivres formula tells us that de moivres formula yields in general the number e is often defined by the formula applying the binomial theorem to this expression yields the usual infinite series for e   in particular the kth term of this sum is as nrarrinfin the rational expression on the right approaches one and therefore this indicates that e can be written as a series indeed since each term of the binomial expansion is an increasing function of n it follows from the monotone convergence theorem for series that the sum of this infinite series is equal toe formula 1 is valid more generally for any elements x and y of a semiring satisfying xyyx the theorem is true even more generally  alternativity suffices in place of associativity the binomial theorem can be stated by saying that the polynomial sequence 1xx2x3 is of binomial type 
blutack in 1970 laboratory researcher alan holloway was working for sealant manufacturer ralli bondite of waterlooville england holloway inadvertently produced a product that was useless as a sealant but pliable and semielastic  this novelty product was demonstrated by ralli bondite management to visiting executives from another sealant and adhesive manufacturer as a means of wall mounting notices  there was no need for secrecy about the formula as it was of no use for a gungrade mastic the main product of ralli bondite in the beginning the potential of this material was not fully recognized until later when bostik commenced research into the development of what they were eventually to launch as blutack in its conceptual stage the product was white but was coloured blue in response to concerns received from marketing research regarding the possibility of children mistaking it for edible confectionery in the uk during march 2008 blutack changed colour for the first time since 1971  to pink  to help raise money for breast cancer campaign 20000 numbered packs were made available 10 from each pack going to the charity the formulation was slightly altered to retain complete consistency with its blue counterpart  since then many coloured variations have been made including the green halloween pack and white blutack launched a competition in october 2009datefebruary 2009 to create the next blutack advert that will be used for their 2010 campaign film maker competition blu tack is also known as zorkai in north eastern areas of canada in south africa it is commonly known as prestik as made by bostik or sticky stuff as made by pritt in iceland it is known as kennaratyggj which translates as teachers chewing gum similar products from other manufacturers include tackit by fabercastellbuddies coloured pink pritttack poster putty tac n stick ticky tack sticky tack and white tack by german company uhu in the usa a similar competing product in an orange colour is marketed under the brand elmers tack in italy a similar but not equal product is patafix by uhu blutack is also used for sculpture  artist elizabeth thompson created a giant 200 kilogram sculpture of a spider using blutack over a wire frame it took 4000 packs and was exhibited at london zoo in 2007  other artists have created works from the material and there is a large international body of dedicated users of blutack who create minor art works and stopmotion animation the british blutack web site takes a keen interest in these activities and has a section devoted to them 
balkanwars the term balkan wars refers to the two wars that took place in southeastern europe in 1912 and 1913  the first balkan war broke out on 8 october 1912 when bulgaria greece montenegro and serbia see balkan league having large parts of their ethnic populations under ottoman sovereignty attacked the ottoman empire terminating its fivecentury rule in the balkans in a sevenmonth campaign resulting in the treaty of london the second balkan war broke out on 16 june 1913 when bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in macedonia made in secret by its former allies serbia and greece their armies repulsed the bulgarian offensive and counterattacked penetrating into bulgaria while romania and the ottoman empire took the opportunity to intervene against bulgaria and make territorial gains  in the resulting treaty of bucharest bulgaria lost most of the territories gained in the first balkan war the background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nationstates on the european territory of the ottoman empire during the second half of the 19th century the serbs had gained substantial territory during the russoturkish war 18771878 while greece acquired thessaly in 1881 although it lost a small area back to the ottoman empire in 1897 and bulgaria an autonomous principality since 1878 incorporated the formerly distinct province of eastern rumelia 1885  all three as well as montenegro sought additional territories within the large ottomanruled region known as rumelia comprising eastern rumelia albania macedonia and thrace see map throughout the 19th century the great powers shared different aims over the eastern question and the integrity of the ottoman empire russia wished for access to the warm waters of the mediterranean it pursued a panslavic foreign policy and thereby supported bulgaria and serbia britain wished to deny russia access to the warm waters and supported the integrity of the ottoman empire although it also supported a limited expansion of greece as a backup plan in case integrity of the empire was no longer possible  france wished to strengthen its position in the region especially in the levant todays lebanon syria the palestinian territories and israel the habsburgruled austriahungary wished for a continuation of the existence of the ottoman empire since both were troubled multinational entities and thus the collapse of the one might weaken the other the habsburgs also saw a strong ottoman presence in area as a counterweight to the serbian nationalistic call to their own serb subjects in bosnia regarding italy it has been argued that from that time it wished to recreate the roman empire its main aim at the time seems to have been primarily the denial of access to the adriatic sea of another major sea power  germany in turn under the drang nach osten policy aspired to turn the ottoman empire into its own defacto colony and thus supported its integrity bulgaria and greece sent armed bandits inside the empire in macedonia and thrace in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to protect their own nationals from the forced bulgarization of greeks by bulgarians or hellinization of bulgars by greeks low intensity warfare had broken out inside macedonia between the greek and bulgarian bands and the ottoman army after 1904 in the struggle for macedonia after the young turk revolution of july 1908 the situation changed drastically it is no surprise that the young turk revolution occurred in the troubled european provinces of the empire there the threat to its integrity was the most pronounced and the need for reforms was most evident  when the revolt broke out it was supported by intellectuals the army and almost all the ethnic minorities of the empire and forced sultan abdul hamid ii to readopt the long defunct ottoman constitution of 1877 ushering in the second constitutional era hopes were raised among the balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy and elections were held to form a representative multiethnic ottoman parliament  however following the sultans attempted countercoup the liberal element of the young turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant at the same time in october 1908 austriahungary seized the opportunity of the ottoman political upheaval to annex the de jure ottoman province of bosniaherzegovina which it had occupied since 1878 see bosnian crisis and bulgaria declared itself a fully independent kingdom the greeks of the autonomous cretan state proclaimed unification with greece though the opposition of the great powers prevented the latter action from taking practical influence frustrated in the north by austriahungarys incorporation of bosnia with its 975000 orthodox serbs and many more serbs and serbsympathizers of other faiths and forced march 1909 to accept the annexation and restrain antihabsburg agitation among serbian nationalist groups the serbian government looked to formerly serb territories in the south notably old serbia the sanjak of novi pazar and the province of kosovo on 15 august 1909 the military league a group of greek officers took action against the government to reform their countrys national government and reorganize the army the league found itself unable to create a new political system till the league summoned the cretan politician eleutherios venizelos to athens as its political adviser  venizelos persuaded the king to revise the constitution and asked the league to disband in favor of a national assembly in march 1910 the military league dissolved itself bulgaria which had secured ottoman recognition of her independence in april 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of russia also looked to districts of ottoman thrace and macedonia in august 1910 montenegro followed bulgarias precedent by becoming a kingdom following italys victory in the italoturkish war of 19111912 the young turks fell from power after a coup the balkan countries saw this as an opportunity to attack and fulfill their desires of expansion with the initial encouragement of russian agents a series of agreements was concluded between serbia and bulgaria in march 1912  military victory against the ottoman empire would not be possible while it could bring reinforcements from asia the condition of the ottoman railways of the time was primitive so most reinforcement would have to come by sea through the aegean greece was the only balkan country with a navy powerful enough to deny use of the aegean to the ottomans thus a treaty became necessary between greece and bulgaria which signed in may 1912 montenegro concluded agreements between serbia and bulgaria later that year  bulgaria signed treaties with serbia to divide between them the territory of northern macedonia but such an agreement was clearly denied to greece bulgarias policy then was to use the agreement to limit serbias access to macedonia while at the same time denying any such agreement with greece believing that its army would be able to occupy the larger part of aegean macedonia and the important port city of thessaloniki before the greeks the resulting alliance between greece serbia bulgaria and montenegro became known as the balkan league its existence was undesirable for all the great powers the league was loose at best though a secret liaison officer was exchanged between the greek and the serbian army after the war began  greece delayed the start of the war several times in the summer of 1912 in order to better prepare her navy but montenegro declared war on october 8 september 25 os following an ultimatum to the ottomans the remaining members of the alliance entered the conflict on october 17 with the exception of greece and in continuation of their secret prewar settlements of expansion between them and under close russian supervision the three slavic allies bulgarian serbs and montenegrins had led out extensive plans to coordinate their war efforts the serbs and  montenegrins in the theatre of sandjak the bulgarians and serbs in the macedonian and thracian theatres the ottoman empire had a massive pool of manpower of about 26 million people but it was handicapped by plans called for an army heavily depended from reinforcements that had to come mainly from the asian part of the empire where the 34 of the population and the majority of the muslims lived  these had to be transferred to the balkans mostly by ships but this depended on the result of battles between the ottoman and greek navies in the aegean with the outbreak of the war the ottoman forces activated three army hq allocating there most of their available forces per front  the thracian with its hq in constantinople the western with its hq in salonika and the vardar with its hq in skopje against the bulgarians the greeks and the serbians respectively  smaller independent units had been allocated elsewhere mostly around heavily fortified cities montenegro was the first that declared war on october 8  its main thrust was towards shkodra with secondary operations in the novi pazar area the rest of the allies after giving a common ultimatum declared war a week later  bulgaria attacked towards eastern thrace being stopped only at the outskirts of constantinople at the atalca line and the isthmus of the gallipoli peninsula while secondary forces captured western thrace and eastern macedonia serbia attacked south towards skopje and monastir and then turned west to the present day albania reaching adriatica while a second army captured kosovo and linked with the montenegrin forces  greeces main forces attacked from thessaly into macedonia through the sarantaporo strait and after capturing thessaloniki on 12 november on 26 october 1912 os expanded its occupied area linked up with the serbian army to the northwestern while its main forces turned east towards kavala reaching the bulgarians another greek army attacked into epirus towards ioannina in the naval front the ottoman fleet twice exited the dardanelles and was twice defeated by the greek navy in the battles of elli and lemnos its dominance on the aegean sea made it impossible for the ottomans to transfer the planned troops from the middle east to the thracian against the bulgarian and to the macedonian against the greeks and serbians fronts  according to the ejerickson the greek navy played also a crucial albeit indirect role in the thracian campaign by neutralizing no less than three thracian corps see first balkan war the bulgarian theatre of operations a significant portion of the ottoman army there in the allimportant opening round of the war  general nikola ivanov identified the activity of the greek navy as the chief factor in the general success of the allies in january after a successful coup by young army officers the ottoman empire decided to continue the war  after a failed ottoman counterattack in the westernthracian front bulgarian forces with the help of the serbian army managed to conquer adrianople while greek forces managed to take ioannina after defeating the ottomans in the battle of bizani in the joint serbianmontenegrin theatre of operation the montenegrin army captured after siege the shkodra ending the ottoman presence west of the atalca line in europe after nearly 500 years the war ended with the treaty of london on may 17 1913 though the balkan allies had fought together against the common enemy that was not enough to overcome their mutual rivalries the second balkan war broke out on 16 june 1913 when bulgaria attacked its erstwhile allies in the first balkan war serbia and greece while montenegro romania and the ottoman empire intervened later against bulgaria when the greek army entered thessaloniki in the first balkan war ahead of the bulgarian 7th division by only a day they were asked to allow a bulgarian battalion to enter the city  greece accepted in exchange for allowing a greek unit to enter the city of serres the bulgarian unit that entered thessaloniki turned out to be a 48000strong division instead of the battalion something which caused concern among the greeks who viewed it as a bulgarian attempt to establish a condominium over the city  in the event due to the urgently needed reinforcements in the thracian front the bulgarian headquarters were soon forced by necessity to remove its troops from the city while the greeks agreed by mutual treaty to remove their units based in serres and transport them to dedeaa modern alexandroupolis but besides the agreement it left behind a battalion that started fortifying its positions greece had also allowed the bulgarians to control the stretch of the thessalonikiconstantinople railroad that lay in greekoccupied territory since bulgaria controlled the largest part of this railroad towards thrace after the end of the operations in thrace and in confirmation to the greek concerns bulgaria not satisfied with the territory it controlled in macedonia immediately asked greece to relinquish its control over thessaloniki and the land north of pieria effectively to hand over all aegean macedonia these unacceptable demands together with the bulgarian refusal to demobilize its army after the treaty of london had ended the common war against the ottomans alarmed greece which decided also to maintain its armys mobilization similarly in northern macedonia the tension between serbia and bulgaria due to later aspirations over vardar macedonia generated many incidents between the nearby armies prompting serbia to maintain its armys mobilization  serbia and greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by one fourth as a first step to facilitate a peaceful solution but bulgaria rejected it seeing the omens greece and serbia started a series of negotiations and signed a treaty on may 19june 1 1913  with this treaty a mutual border was agreed between the two countries together with an agreement for mutual military and diplomatic support in case of a bulgarian orand austrohungarian attack  tsar nicholas ii of russia being well informed tried to stop the upcoming conflict on june 8 by sending an identical personal message to the kings of bulgaria and serbia offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 serbobulgarian treaty but bulgaria by making the acceptance of russian arbitration conditional in effect denied any discussion caused russia to repudiate its alliance with bulgaria see russobulgarian military convention signed 31 may 1902 the serbs and the greeks had a military advantage in the eve of the war because their armies confronted comparatively weak ottoman forces in the first balkan war and suffered relatively light casualties while the bulgarians were involved in heavy fighting in thrace the serbs and the greeks had time to fortify their positions in macedonia the bulgarians also held some advantages controlling internal communication and supply lines on 16 june 1913 general savov under the direct orders of the tsar ferdinand i issued attacking orders against both greece and serbia without consulting the bulgarian government and without any official declaration of war  during the night of june 17 1913 they attacked the serbian army at bregalnica river and then the greek army in nigrita the serbian army resisted the sudden night attack while most of soldiers did not even know who they are fighting with as bulgarian camps were located next to serbs and were considered allies  montenegros forces were just a few kilometres away and rushed also to the battle the bulgarian attack was halted the greek army was also successful  however the greek armys pace was not quick enough as to prevent the massacre of greek peaceable inhabitants at nigrita serres drama and doxato the greek army then divided their forces and advanced in two directions  part proceeded east and occupied western thrace the rest of the greek army advanced up to the struma river valley defeating the bulgarian army in the battles of doiran and mt beles and continued its advance to the north towards sofia in the kresna straits the greeks were ambushed by the bulgarian 2nd and 1st army newly arrived from the serbian front that had already taken defensive positions there following the bulgarian victory at kalimanci by 30 july the greek army was outnumbered by the counterattacking bulgarian army who attempted to encircle the greeks in a cannaetype battle by applying pressure on their flanks the greek army resisted successfully however launching local counterattacks the battle was continued for eleven days between july 29 and august 9 over 20km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion the greek king seeing that the units he fought were from the serbian front tried to convince the serbs to renew their attack as the front ahead them was now thinner but the serbs rejected it  by then news came for the romanian success towards sofia and its imminent fall  after that constantine realizing the aimless of the continuation of the counterattack agreed to eleftherios venizelos proposal and accepted the bulgarian request for armistice as this had been communicated through romania romania had raised an army and declared war on bulgaria on june 27 as it had from june 15 officially warned bulgaria that it will not remain neutral in a new balkan war due to the bulgarias refusal to cede the fortress of silistra as promised before the first balkan war in exchange for the romanian neutrality they encountered little resistance and by the time the greeks accepted the bulgarian request for armistice they had reached vrazhdebna 7 miles from the center of sofia seeing the military position of the bulgarian army the ottomans decided to intervene they attacked and finding no opposition managed to recover the eastern thrace with its fortified city of adrianople regaining a land mass in europe which was only slightly larger than the presentday european territory of the republic of turkey the developments that led to the first balkan war did not go unnoticed by the great powers but although there was an official consensus between the european powers over the territorial integrity of the ottoman empire which led to a stern warning to the balkan states unofficially each of them took a different diplomatic approach due to their conflicting interests in the area  as a result any possible preventive effect of the common official warning was cancelled by the mixed unofficial signals and failed to prevent or to stop the war the second balkan war was a catastrophic blow to the russian policies in the balkans in where russia had focused its interests for exit to the warm seas for centuries  first it marked the end of the balkan league a vital arm to the russian system of defence against austriahungary secondly the clearly proserbian position russia had forced to take in the conflict mainly due to the bulgarian uncompromising aggressiveness caused a permanent breakup between the two countries  accordingly bulgaria reverted its policy into a more close to the central powers understanding over an antiserbian front due to its new national aspirations now expressed mainly against serbia as a result serbia isolated militarily against its rival austriahungary a development that eventually doomed serbia in the coming war a year later but most damaging the new situation effectively trapped the russian foreign policy  after 1913 russia could not afford losing its last ally in this critical for her interests area and thus had no alternatives but to unconditionally support serbia when the crisis between serbia and austria broke out in 1914  this was a position that inevitably drew her although unwillingly in a world war with devastating results for her since she was less prepared both militarily and socially for that event than any other great power austriahungary took alarm at the great increase in serbias territory at the expense of its national aspirations in the region as well as serbias rising status especially to the austrohungarian slavic populations  this concern was shared by germany which saw serbia as a satellite of russia this contributed significantly to the two central powers willingness to go to a war as soon as possible finally when a serbian backed organization assassinated the heir of the austrohungarian throne causing the 1914 july crisis nobody could stop the conflict and the first world war broke out urlanis estimated in voini i narodonacelenie europi 1960 that in the first and second balkan wars there were 122000 killed in action 20000 dead of wounds and 82000 dead of disease since the area has been referred to as the balkans notable conflicts have included 
bayesianprobability broadly speaking there are two views on bayesian probability that interpret the state of knowledge concept in different ways  according to the objectivist view the rules of bayesian statistics can be justified by requirements of rationality and consistency and interpreted as an extension of logic  according to the subjectivist view the state of knowledge measures a personal belief  many modern machine learning methods are based on objectivist bayesian principles  in the bayesian view a probability is assigned to a hypothesis whereas under the  frequentist view a hypothesis is typically tested without being assigned a probability bayes theorem is one of the main tools for manipulating probabilities of any kind that is it is applicable no matter what interpretation is being placed on the probabilities being manipulated  bayesian inference is a formal approach to making statistical inferences in cases where some of the probabilities are interpreted as representing beliefs or knowledge rather than having a frequencybased interpretation  while bayesian inference makes uses of bayes theorem not all cases where bayes theorem is applied should be labelled as bayesian statistics or bayesian inference the use of bayes theorem in bayesian inference may be described as follows  let h denote a hypothesis that a certain statement of supposed fact is true or that a statistical parameter takes a certain value  before observing data from a given experiment one starts with some belief about whether the hypothesis h is true expressed in the form of a probability usually called the prior probability  bayes theorem is used to determine what ones probability for the hypothesis should be once the outcome d from the experiment is known the phrase should be is important here as bayes theorem is a condensation of the rules that anyone should apply to updating beliefs provided that they are acting according to reasonable rules of requirements of rationality and consistency the posterior probability is proportional to the likelihood of the observed data multiplied by the prior probability and is given by bayes theorem  thus the quantity operatornamepd is the prior probability of witnessing the data d under all possible hypotheses and it depends on the prior probabilities given to each of these other possible hypotheses  given any exhaustive set of mutually exclusive hypotheses hi here i can be considered to index alternative cases of which exactly one is actually valid and hi is the hypothesis that case i is valid  then operatornamepd hi is then the probability that both case i is valid and that the data from the experiment turn out to be what was observed  since the set of alternative cases is assumed to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive the above formula is a case of the law of total probability  in many cases operatornamepd which is a  normalizing constant need not be evaluated  as a result bayes formula is often simplified to in general bayesian methods are characterized by the following concepts and procedures broadly speaking there are two views on bayesian probability that interpret the state of knowledge concept in different ways  for objectivists the rules of bayesian statistics can be justified by requirements of rationality and consistency the term bayesian refers to thomas bayes 17021761 who proved a special case of what is now called bayes theorem  however it was pierresimon laplace 17491827 who introduced a general version of the theorem and used it to approach problems in celestial mechanics medical statistics reliability and jurisprudence   early bayesian inference which used uniform priors following laplaces principle of insufficient reason was called inverse probability because it infers backwards from observations to parameters or from effects to causes  after the 1920s inverse probability was largely supplanted  by a collection of methods that came to be called frequentist statistics in the 20th century the ideas of laplace were further developed in two different directions giving rise to objective and subjective currents in bayesian practice  in the objectivist stream the statistical analysis depends on only the model assumed and the data analysed  no subjective decisions need to be involved  in contrast subjectivist statisticians deny the possibility of fully objective analysis for the general case in the 1980s there was a dramatic growth in research and applications of bayesian methods mostly attributed to the discovery of markov chain monte carlo methods which removed many of the computational problems and an increasing interest in nonstandard complex applications  despite growth of bayesian research most undergraduate teaching is still based on frequentist statistics  nonetheless bayesian methods are widely accepted and used such as for example in the field of machine learning the use of bayesian probabilities as the basis of bayesian inference has been supported by several arguments such as the cox axioms the dutch book argument arguments based on decision theory and de finettis theorem richard t cox showed that the dutch book argument was proposed by de finetti and is based on betting a dutch book is made when a clever gambler places a set of bets that guarantee a profit no matter what the outcome is of the bets if a bookmaker follows the rules of the bayesian calculus in the construction of his odds a dutch book cannot be made however ian hacking noted that traditional dutch book arguments did not specify bayesian updating they left open the possibility that nonbayesian updating rules could avoid dutch books  for example hacking writes and neither the dutch book argument nor any other in the personalist arsenal of proofs of the probability axioms entails the dynamic assumption  not one entails bayesianism so the personalist requires the dynamic assumption in order to be bayesian it is true that in consistency a personalist could abandon the bayesian model of learning from experience  salt could lose its savour in fact there are nonbayesian updating rules that also avoid dutch books as discussed in the literature on probability kinematics following the publication of richard c jeffreys rule the additional hypotheses sufficient to uniquely specify bayesian updating are substantial complicated and unsatisfactory a decisiontheoretic justification of the use of bayesian inference and hence of bayesian probabilities was given by abraham wald who proved that every bayesian procedure is admissible conversely every admissible statistical procedure is either a bayesian procedure or a limit of bayesian procedures following the work on expected utility theory of ramsey and von neumann  decisiontheorists have accounted for rational behavior using a probability distribution for the agent  johann pfanzagl completed the theory of games and economic behavior by providing an axiomatization of subjective probability and utility a task left uncompleted by von neumann and oskar morgenstern their original theory supposed that all the agents had the same probability distribution as a convenience  pfanzagls axiomatization was endorsed by oskar morgenstern von neumann and i have anticipated the question whether probabilities might perhaps more typically be subjective and have stated specifically that in the latter case axioms could be found from which could derive the desired numerical utility together with a number for the probabilities cf p 19 of the theory of games and economic behavior we did not carry this out it was demonstrated by pfanzagl with all the necessary rigor ramsey and savage noted that the individual agents probability distribution could be objectively studied in experiments the role of judgment and disagreement in science has been recognized since aristotle and even more clearly with francis bacon the objectivity of science lies not in the psychology of individual scientists but in the process of science and especially in statistical methods as noted by c s peirce recall that the objective methods for falsifying propositions about personal probabilities have been used for a half century as noted previously  procedures for testing hypotheses about probabilities using finite samples are due to ramsey 1931 and de finetti 1931 1937 1964 1970  both bruno de finetti and frank p ramsey acknowledge their debts to pragmatic philosophy particularly for ramsey to charles s peirce the ramsey test for evaluating probability distributions is implementable in theory and has kept experimental psychologists occupied for a half century this work demonstrates that bayesianprobability propositions can be falsified and so meet an empirical criterion of charles s peirce whose work inspired ramsey this falsifiabilitycriterion was popularized by karl popper modern work on the experimental evaluation of personal probabilities use the randomization blinding and booleandecision procedures of the peircejastrow experiment personal probabilities are problematic for science and for some applications where decisionmakers lack the knowledge or time to specify an informed probabilitydistribution on which they are prepared to act  to meet the needs of science and of human limitations bayesian statisticians have developed objective methods for specifying prior probabilities indeed some bayesians have argued the prior state of knowledge defines the unique prior probabilitydistribution for regular statistical problems cf wellposed problems  finding the right method for constructing such objective priors for appropriate classes of regular problems has been the quest of statistical theorists from laplace to john maynard keynes harold jeffreys and edwin thompson jaynes these theorists and their successors have suggested several methods for constructing objective priors each of these methods contributes useful priors for regular oneparameter problems and each prior can handle some challenging statistical models with irregularity or several parameters  each of these methods has been useful in bayesian practice  indeed methods for constructing objective alternatively default or ignorance priors have been developed by avowed subjective or personal bayesians like james berger duke university and josmiguel bernardo universitat de valncia simply because such priors are needed for bayesian practice particularly in science  each of these methods gives implausible priors for some problems and so the quest for the universal method for constructing priors continues to attract statistical theorists thus the bayesian statistican needs either to use informed priors using relevant expertise or previous data or to choose among the competing methods for constructing objective priors 
bovril bovril can be made into a drink by diluting with hot water or less commonly with milk it can also be used as a flavouring for soups stews or porridge or spread on bread especially toast rather like marmite the first part of the products name comes from latin bos genitive bovis meaning ox or cow  johnston took the vril suffix from bulwerlyttons thenpopular 1870 lost race novel the coming race whose plot revolves around a powerful energy fluid named vril in 1870 in the war against the prussians napoleon iii found that his armies could not march on empty stomachs he therefore ordered one million cans of beef to feed his starving troops the task of providing all this beef went to a scotsman named john lawson johnston large quantities of beef were available across the british dominions and south america but its transport and storage was problematic  therefore johnston created a product known as johnstons fluid beef later called bovril to meet the needs of the french people and napoleon iii by 1888 over 3000 british public houses grocers and chemists were selling bovril in 1889 the bovril company was formed bovril continued to function as a war food in world war i and was frequently mentioned in the 1930 account not so quiet stepdaughters of war by helen zenna smith evadne price as a drink mixing the beef flavouring with hot water it helped sustain ambulance drivers and men in trenches a thermos of beef tea was the favoured way to fend off the chill of winter matches for generations of scottish and english football enthusiasts to this day bovril dissolved in hot water is sold in stadiums all over the united kingdom bovril beef tea was the only warm drink that ernest shackletons team had to drink when they were marooned on elephant island during the endurance expedition when john lawson johnston died george lawson johnston inherited the bovril business  in 1929 george lawson johnston was recognised by the british government and monarchy and was ennobled as lord luke of pavenham in the county of bedford this hereditary title passed to ian st john lawson johnston in 1943 and to arthur charles st john lawson johnston in 1996  the current lord luke is one of the 92 hereditary peers elected to remain in the house of lords of the united kingdom after its 1999 reform bovrils instant beef stock was launched in 1966 and its king of beef range of instant flavours for stews casseroles and gravy in 1971 in 1971 cavenham foods acquired the bovril company but then sold most of its dairies and south american operations to finance further takeovers the brand is now owned by unilever bovril holds the unusual position of having been advertised with a pope an advertising campaign of the early 20th century in britain depicted the pope seated on his throne bearing a mug of bovril the campaign slogan read  the two infallible powers  the pope  bovril bovril is also produced in south africa by the bokomo division of pioneer foods the product range includes a version with chili the manufacturer also hoped to increase exports unilever uk  ireland export to asian countries such as malaysia a primarily muslim country where the government was becoming restrictive regarding nonhalal meat  by changing bovril to a nonmeat base unilever hoped to increase sales there where people enjoy bovril stirred into porridge the removal of beef from the recipe in 2004 was not without criticism with many complaining that the new variant did not taste the same and had a different mouth feel  beef extract was eventually reintroduced as a key bovril ingredient in 2006 after the european commission lifted its ban on the export of britains beef products it was only at this point that the manufacturer stated explicitly that this had been the main reason for beefs removal  during the siege of ladysmith in the second boer war a bovrillike paste was unofficially produced from horse meat within the garrison  nicknamed chevril by replacing the bov ox with chev horse in the bovril name it was produced by boiling down horse meat or mules to a jelly paste and serving it as a beef tea in november 2004 the manufacturers unilever announced that the composition of bovril was being changed from beef extract to a yeast extract claiming it was to make the product suitable for vegetarians and vegans at that time fear of bovine spongiform encephalopathy bse may have been a factor  according to unilever in blind taste tests 10 didnt notice any difference in taste 40 preferred the original and 50 preferred the new product  it now produces bovril using beef and chicken bovril was famously advertised as a potential aid to slimming in the 1980s via an ad campaign featuring actress and model jerry hall using the slogan are you a bovril body   bovril is served at the groucho club and is associated with football culture being commonly drunk on the terraces from thermos flasks in winter  at scottish football stadiums containers such as thermos flasks are banned by law so bovril is purchased inside the grounds where it is served in polystyrene or plastic cups some bovril lovers as seen at football matches like to shake white pepper and a little cayenne into the drink burton albion have named their home end after bovril due to the sponsorships between club and company   famous bovril drinkers include former ipswich town stalwart bontcho guentchev bb7s aisleyne horganwallace lewis tomalin from the perfect week and london scottishs martin tattersall in july 2008 nme magazine referred to upandcoming manchesterbased indie band mucky minds as vampire weekend on bovril  in the british sitcom spaced episode 24 bovril is the punchline of a joke while tim mike and tyres are walking home bovril is again the subject of a punchline in british sitcom the mighty boosh episode 23 nanageddon when vince noir changes his name to obsidian blackbird mcnight in order to impress two goth girls howard moon pokes fun at him by calling him obsidian raven mcbovril on top gear jeremy clarkson attached a v8 engine to a food blender and created a smoothie made with bovril tabasco sauce chilis raw beef and a brick 
listofolympicmedalistsinbiathlon medalists in military patrol a precursor to biathlon are listed separately the womens relay event has been competed over three different distances 
centralprocessingunit the central processing unit cpu is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer program and is the primary element carrying out the computers functions the central processing unit carries out each instruction of the program in sequence to perform the basic arithmetical logical and inputoutput operations of the system   this term has been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s the form design and implementation of cpus have changed dramatically since the earliest examples but their fundamental operation remains much the same early cpus were customdesigned as a part of a larger sometimes oneofakind computer  however this costly method of designing custom cpus for a particular application has largely given way to the development of massproduced  processors that are made for one or many purposes   this standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit ic the ic has allowed increasingly complex cpus to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers  both the miniaturization and standardization of cpus have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines  modern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones and childrens toys computers such as the eniac had to be physically rewired in order to perform different tasks which caused these machines to be called fixedprogram computers  since the term cpu is generally defined as a software computer program execution device the earliest devices that could rightly be called cpus came with the advent of the storedprogram computer the idea of a storedprogram computer was already present in the design of j presper eckert and john william mauchlys eniac but was initially omitted so the machine could be finished sooner   on june 30 1945 before eniac was even completed mathematician john von neumann distributed the paper entitled first draft of a report on the edvac it outlined the design of a storedprogram computer that would eventually be completed in august 1949  edvac was designed to perform a certain number of instructions or operations of various types   these instructions could be combined to create useful programs for the edvac to run   significantly the programs written for edvac were stored in highspeed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer   this overcame a severe limitation of eniac which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task   with von neumanns design the program or software that edvac ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the computers memory while von neumann is most often credited with the design of the storedprogram computer because of his design of edvac others before him such as konrad zuse had suggested and implemented similar ideas the socalled harvard architecture of the harvard mark i which was completed before edvac also utilized a storedprogram design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory the key difference between the von neumann and harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of cpu instructions and data while the former uses the same memory space for both   most modern cpus are primarily von neumann in design but elements of the harvard architecture are commonly seen as well as a digital device a cpu is limited to a set of discrete states and requires some kind of switching elements to differentiate between and change states   prior to commercial development of the transistor electrical relays and vacuum tubes thermionic valves were commonly used as switching elements   although these had distinct speed advantages over earlier purely mechanical designs they were unreliable for various reasons   for example building direct current sequential logic circuits out of relays requires additional hardware to cope with the problem of contact bounce   while vacuum tubes do not suffer from contact bounce they must heat up before becoming fully operational and they eventually cease to function due to slow contamination of their cathodes that occurs in the course of normal operation if a tubes vacuum seal leaks as sometimes happens cathode contamination is accelerated  usually when a tube failed the cpu would have to be diagnosed to locate the failed component so it could be replaced   therefore early electronic vacuum tube based computers were generally faster but less reliable than electromechanical relay based computers tube computers like edvac tended to average eight hours between failures whereas relay computers like the slower but earlier harvard mark i failed very rarely the design complexity of cpus increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices the first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor   transistorized cpus during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky unreliable and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and electrical relays   with this improvement more complex and reliable cpus were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete individual components during this period a method of manufacturing many transistors in a compact space gained popularity the integrated circuit ic allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductorbased die or chip   at first only very basic nonspecialized digital circuits such as nor gates were miniaturized into ics  cpus based upon these building block ics are generally referred to as smallscale integration ssi devices   ssi ics such as the ones used in the apollo guidance computer usually contained transistor counts numbering in multiples of ten   to build an entire cpu out of ssi ics required thousands of individual chips but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs   as microelectronic technology advanced an increasing number of transistors were placed on ics thus decreasing the quantity of individual ics needed for a complete cpu  msi and lsi medium and largescale integration ics increased transistor counts to hundreds and then thousands in 1964 ibm introduced its system360 computer architecture which was used in a series of computers that could run the same programs with different speed and performance   this was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another even those made by the same manufacturer   to facilitate this improvement ibm utilized the concept of a microprogram often called microcode which still sees widespread usage in modern cpus the system360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the ibm zseries   in the same year 1964 digital equipment corporation dec introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets the pdp8   dec would later introduce the extremely popular pdp11 line that originally was built with ssi ics but was eventually implemented with lsi components once these became practical   in stark contrast with its ssi and msi predecessors the first lsi implementation of the pdp11 contained a cpu composed of only four lsi integrated circuits transistorbased computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors   aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption transistors also allowed cpus to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay   thanks to both the increased reliability as well as the dramatically increased speed of the switching elements which were almost exclusively transistors by this time cpu clock rates in the tens of megahertz were obtained during this period   additionally while discrete transistor and ic cpus were in heavy usage new highperformance designs like simd single instruction multiple data vector processors began to appear   these early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by cray inc the introduction of the microprocessor in the 1970s significantly affected the design and implementation of cpus since the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor the intel 4004 in 1970 and the first widely used microprocessor the intel 8080 in 1974 this class of cpus has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods   mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary ic development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backwardcompatible with their older hardware and software   combined with the advent and eventual vast success of the now ubiquitous personal computer the term cpu is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors previous generations of cpus were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits ics on one or more circuit boards   microprocessors on the other hand are cpus manufactured on a very small number of ics usually just one the overall smaller cpu size as a result of being implemented on a single die means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance   this has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz   additionally as the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an ic has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single cpu has increased dramatically   this widely observed trend is described by moores law which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of cpu and other ic complexity to date while the complexity size construction and general form of cpus have changed drastically over the past sixty years it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all   almost all common cpus today can be very accurately described as von neumann storedprogram machines  as the aforementioned moores law continues to hold true concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology   extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant   these newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von neumann model the fundamental operation of most cpus regardless of the physical form they take is to execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program the program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in some kind of computer memory   there are four steps that nearly all cpus use in their operation fetch decode execute and writeback the first step fetch involves retrieving an instruction which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers from program memory the location in program memory is determined by a program counter pc which stores a number that identifies the current position in the program   in other words the program counter keeps track of the cpus place in the program   after an instruction is fetched the pc is incremented by the length of the instruction word in terms of memory units   often the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory causing the cpu to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned   this issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures see below the instruction that the cpu fetches from memory is used to determine what the cpu is to do   in the decode step the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the cpu the way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the cpus instruction set architecture isa often one group of numbers in the instruction called the opcode indicates which operation to perform the remaining parts of the number usually provide information required for that instruction such as operands for an addition operation   such operands may be given as a constant value called an immediate value or as a place to locate a value a register or a memory address as determined by some addressing mode   in older designs the portions of the cpu responsible for instruction decoding were unchangeable hardware devices   however in more abstract and complicated cpus and isas a microprogram is often used to assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the cpu this microprogram is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the cpu decodes instructions even after it has been manufactured after the fetch and decode steps the execute step is performed   during this step various portions of the cpu are connected so they can perform the desired operation   if for instance an addition operation was requested an arithmetic logic unit alu will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs the inputs provide the numbers to be added and the outputs will contain the final sum the alu contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs like addition and bitwise operations if the addition operation produces a result too large for the cpu to handle an arithmetic overflow flag in a flags register may also be set the final step writeback simply writes back the results of the execute step to some form of memory   very often the results are written to some internal cpu register for quick access by subsequent instructions   in other cases results may be written to slower but cheaper and larger main memory some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result data  these are generally called jumps and facilitate behavior like loops conditional program execution through the use of a conditional jump and functions in programs   many instructions will also change the state of digits in a flags register  these flags can be used to influence how a program behaves since they often indicate the outcome of various operations   for example one type of compare instruction considers two values and sets a number in the flags register according to which one is greater   this flag could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow after the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data the entire process repeats with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the nextinsequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter if the completed instruction was a jump the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally   in more complex cpus than the one described here multiple instructions can be fetched decoded and executed simultaneously   this section describes what is generally referred to as the classic risc pipeline which in fact is quite common among the simple cpus used in many electronic devices often called microcontroller it largely ignores the important role of cpu cache and therefore the access stage of the pipeline the way a cpu represents numbers is a design choice that affects the most basic ways in which the device functions some early digital computers used an electrical model of the common decimal base ten numeral system to represent numbers internally a few other computers have used more exotic numeral systems like ternary base three  nearly all modern cpus represent numbers in binary form with each digit being represented by some twovalued physical quantity such as a high or low voltage related to number representation is the size and precision of numbers that a cpu can represent   in the case of a binary cpu a bit refers to one significant place in the numbers a cpu deals with the number of bits or numeral places a cpu uses to represent numbers is often called word size bit width data path width or integer precision when dealing with strictly integer numbers as opposed to floating point   this number differs between architectures and often within different parts of the very same cpu for example an 8bit cpu deals with a range of numbers that can be represented by eight binary digits each digit having two possible values that is 28 or 256 discrete numbers   in effect integer size sets a hardware limit on the range of integers the software run by the cpu can utilize integer range can also affect the number of locations in memory the cpu can address locate   for example if a binary cpu uses 32 bits to represent a memory address and each memory address represents one octet 8 bits the maximum quantity of memory that cpu can address is 232 octets or 4 gib this is a very simple view of cpu address space and many designs use more complex addressing methods like paging in order to locate more memory than their integer range would allow with a flat address space higher levels of integer range require more structures to deal with the additional digits and therefore more complexity size power usage and general expense it is not at all uncommon therefore to see 4 or 8bit microcontrollers used in modern applications even though cpus with much higher range such as 16 32 64 even 128bit are available the simpler microcontrollers are usually cheaper use less power and therefore dissipate less heat all of which can be major design considerations for electronic devices   however in higherend applications the benefits afforded by the extra range most often the additional address space are more significant and often affect design choices   to gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths many cpus are designed with different bit widths for different portions of the device   for example the ibm system370 used a cpu that was primarily 32 bit but it used 128bit precision inside its floating point units to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers the clock rate is the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions  every computer  contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components the cpu  requires a fixed number of clock ticks or clock cycles to execute each instruction the faster the clock the more instructions the cpu can execute per second most cpus and indeed most sequential logic devices are synchronous in nature   that is they are designed and operate on assumptions about a synchronization signal   this signal known as a clock signal usually takes the form of a periodic square wave   by calculating the maximum time that electrical signals can move in various branches of a cpus many circuits the designers can select an appropriate period for the clock signal this period must be longer than the amount of time it takes for a signal to move or propagate in the worstcase scenario   in setting the clock period to a value well above the worstcase propagation delay it is possible to design the entire cpu and the way it moves data around the edges of the rising and falling clock signal   this has the advantage of simplifying the cpu significantly both from a design perspective and a componentcount perspective   however it also carries the disadvantage that the entire cpu must wait on its slowest elements even though some portions of it are much faster   this limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing cpu parallelism see below however architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous cpus for example a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal   higher clock rates in increasingly complex cpus make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase synchronized throughout the entire unit   this has led many modern cpus to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided in order to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the cpu to malfunction   another major issue as clock rates increase dramatically is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the cpu the constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time   in general a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state   therefore as clock rate increases so does heat dissipation causing the cpu to require more effective cooling solutions one method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components effectively disabling them   however this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very lowpower designs  one notable late cpu design that uses clock gating is that of the ibm powerpcbased xbox 360   it utilizes extensive clock gating in order to reduce the power requirements of the aforementioned videogame console in which it is used    another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether   while removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways asynchronous or clockless designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs   while somewhat uncommon entire asynchronous cpus have been built without utilizing a global clock signal   two notable examples of this are the arm compliant amulet and the mips r3000 compatible minimips rather than totally removing the clock signal some cpu designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous such as using asynchronous alus in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains   while it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations   this combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties makes them very suitable for embedded computers the description of the basic operation of a cpu offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a cpu can take   this type of cpu usually referred to as subscalar operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time this process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar cpus since only one instruction is executed at a time the entire cpu must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction   as a result the subscalar cpu gets hung up on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution   even adding a second execution unit see below does not improve performance much rather than one pathway being hung up now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased   this design wherein the cpus execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time can only possibly reach scalar performance one instruction per clock  however the performance is nearly always subscalar less than one instruction per cycle attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the cpu to behave less linearly and more in parallel   when referring to parallelism in cpus two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques   instruction level parallelism ilp seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a cpu that is to increase the utilization of ondie execution resources and thread level parallelism tlp purposes to increase the number of threads effectively individual programs that a cpu can execute simultaneously   each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the cpus performance for an application one of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing   this is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining and is utilized in almost all modern generalpurpose cpus pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages  this separation can be compared to an assembly line in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired pipelining does however introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation a condition often termed data dependency conflict   to cope with this additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs   naturally accomplishing this requires additional circuitry so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones though not very significantly so a pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar inhibited only by pipeline stalls an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of cpu components even further   designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units   in a superscalar pipeline multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel simultaneously if so they are dispatched to available execution units resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously   in general the more instructions a superscalar cpu is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar cpu architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher the dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible   this requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of cpu cache it also makes hazardavoiding techniques like branch prediction speculative execution and outoforder execution crucial to maintaining high levels of performance   by attempting to predict which branch or path a conditional instruction will take the cpu can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed   speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes   outoforder execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies  also in case of single instructions multiple data a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single  instruction is executed many times the cpu skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increasing performance on certain occasions especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing in the case where a portion of the cpu is superscalar and part is not the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls the intel p5 pentium had two superscalar alus which could accept one instruction per clock each but its fpu could not accept one instruction per clock  thus the p5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar   intels successor to the p5 architecture p6 added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a cpus ilp by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per cycle ipc most modern cpu designs are at least somewhat superscalar and nearly all general purpose cpus designed in the last decade are superscalar   in later years some of the emphasis in designing highilp computers has been moved out of the cpus hardware and into its software interface or isa the strategy of the very long instruction word vliw causes some ilp to become implied directly by the software reducing the amount of work the cpu must perform to boost ilp and thereby reducing the designs complexity another strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple programs or threads in parallel this area of research is known as parallel computing  in flynns taxonomy this strategy is known as multiple instructionsmultiple data or mimd one technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing mp the initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing smp where a small number of cpus share a coherent view of their memory system  in this scheme each cpu has additional hardware to maintain a constantly uptodate view of memory  by avoiding stale views of memory the cpus can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one cpu to another  to increase the number of cooperating cpus beyond a handful schemes such as nonuniform memory access numa and directorybased coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s  smp systems are limited to a small number of cpus while numa systems have been built with thousands of processors  initially multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete cpus and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors  when the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single silicon chip the technology is known as a multicore microprocessor it was later recognized that finergrain parallelism existed with a single program a single program might have several threads or functions that could be executed separately or in parallel some of earliest examples of this technology implemented inputoutput processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread a more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel  this technology is known as multithreading mt this approach is considered more costeffective than multiprocessing as only a small number of components within a cpu is replicated in order to support mt as opposed to the entire cpu in the case of mp in mt the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads the downside of mt is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of mp and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support mt one type of mt that was implemented is known as block multithreading where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory  in this scheme the cpu would then quickly switch to another thread which is ready to run the switch often done in one cpu clock cycle such as the ultrasparc technology another type of mt is known as simultaneous multithreading where instructions of multiple threads are executed in parallel within one cpu clock cycle for several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s the focus in designing high performance general purpose cpus was largely on achieving high ilp through technologies such as pipelining caches superscalar execution outoforder execution etc  this trend culminated in large powerhungry cpus such as the intel pentium 4  by the early 2000s cpu designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ilp techniques due to the growing disparity between cpu operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating cpu power dissipation owing to more esoteric ilp techniques cpu designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing where the aggregate performance of multiple programs also known as throughput computing was more important than the performance of a single thread or program this reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and multiple core cmp chiplevel multiprocessing designs and notably intels newer designs resembling its less superscalar p6 architecture   late designs in several processor families exhibit cmp including the x8664 opteron and athlon 64 x2 the sparc ultrasparc t1 ibm power4 and power5 as well as several video game console cpus like the xbox 360s triplecore powerpc design and the ps3s 7core cell microprocessor a less common but increasingly important paradigm of cpus and indeed computing in general deals with data parallelism the processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device   as the name implies vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction   this contrasts with scalar processors which deal with one piece of data for every instruction   using flynns taxonomy these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as sisd single instruction single data and simd single instruction multiple data respectively the great utility in creating cpus that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation for example a sum or a dot product to be performed on a large set of data some classic examples of these types of tasks are multimedia applications images video and sound as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks   whereas a scalar cpu must complete the entire process of fetching decoding and executing each instruction and value in a set of data a vector cpu can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction   of course this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data most early vector cpus such as the cray1 were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications   however as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media the need for some form of simd in generalpurpose cpus has become significant   shortly after floating point execution units started to become commonplace to include in generalpurpose processors specifications for and implementations of simd execution units also began to appear for generalpurpose cpus some of these early simd specifications like hps multimedia acceleration extensions max and intels mmx were integeronly   this proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers since many of the applications that benefit from simd primarily deal with floating point numbers   progressively these early designs were refined and remade into some of the common modern simd specifications which are usually associated with one isa some notable modern examples are intels sse and the powerpcrelated altivec also known as vmx the performance or speed of a processor depends on the clock rate and the instructions per clock ipc which together are the factors for the instructions per second ips that the cpu can perform many reported ips values have represented peak execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications some of which take longer to execute than others the performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance an issue barely considered in mips calculations  because of these problems various standardized tests such as specint have been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications processing performance of computers is increased by using multicore processors which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors called cores in this sense into one integrated circuit 
personalcomputerhardware though a pc comes in many different forms a typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape desktop containing components such as a motherboard the motherboard is the main component inside the case it is a large rectangular board with integrated circuitry that connects the rest of the parts of the computer including the cpu the ram the disk drives cd dvd hard disk or any others as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the expansion slots components directly attached to the motherboard include hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent even when the computer has no power enables the computer to output sound to audio devices as well as accept input from a microphone   most modern computers have sound cards builtin to the motherboard though it is common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade   most sound cards either builtin or added have surround sound capabilities input and output devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis the following are either standard or very common to many computer systems 
cladistics cladistics can be distinguished from other taxonomic systems such as phenetics by its focus on shared derived characters synapomorphies  systems developed earlier usually employed overall morphological similarity to group species into genera families and other higher level groups taxa cladistic classifications usually in the form of trees called cladograms are intended to reflect the relative recency of common ancestry or the sharing of homologous features  cladistics is also distinguished by an emphasis on parsimony and hypothesis testing particularly falsificationism leading to a claim that cladistics is more objective than systems which rely on subjective judgements of relationship based on similarity cladistics originated in the work of the german entomologist willi hennig who referred to it as phylogenetic systematics also the name of his 1966 book the use of the terms cladistics and clade was popularized by other researchers the technique and sometimes the name have been successfully applied in other disciplines for example to determine the relationships between the surviving manuscripts of the canterbury tales cladists use cladograms diagrams which show ancestral relations between species to represent the monophyletic relationships of species termed sistergroup relationships  this is interpreted as representing phylogeny or evolutionary relationships  although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters genetic sequencing data and computational phylogenetics are now very commonly used in the generation of cladograms cladistics either generally or in specific applications has been criticized from its beginnings a decision as to whether a particular character is a synapomorphy or not may be challenged as involving subjective judgements raising the issue of whether cladistics as actually practised is as objective as has been claimed  formal classifications based on cladistic reasoning are said to emphasize ancestry at the expense of descriptive characteristics and thus ignore biologically sensible clearly defined groups which do not fall into clades eg reptiles as traditionally defined or prokaryotes the term clade was introduced in 1958 by julian huxley cladistic by cain and harrison in 1960 and cladist for an adherent of hennigs school by mayr in 1965  hennig referred to his own approach as phylogenetic systematics  from the time of his original formulation until the end of the 1980s cladistics remained a minority approach to classification  however in the 1990s it rapidly became the dominant method of classification in evolutionary biology  computers made it possible to process large quantities of data about organisms and their characteristics  at about the same time the development of effective polymerase chain reaction techniques made it possible to apply cladistic methods of analysis to biochemical and molecular genetic features of organisms as well as to anatomical ones for some decades in the mid to late twentieth century a commonly used methodology was phenetics numerical taxonomy  this can be seen as a predecessor to some methods of todays cladistics namely distance matrix methods such as neighborjoining but made no attempt to resolve phylogeny only similarities a clade is a group of taxa consisting only of an ancestor taxon and all of its descendant taxa  in the diagram provided a cladogram it is hypothesized that all vertebrates including rayfinned fishes actinopterygii had a common ancestor and so form a clade  within the vertebrates all tetrapods including amphibians mammals reptiles as traditionally defined and birds are hypothesized to have had a common ancestor and so also form a clade the tetrapod ancestor was a descendant of the original vertebrate ancestor but is not an ancestor of any rayfinned fish living today an important caution is that any cladogram is a provisional hypothesis  although unlikely future genetic or morphological evidence might suggest that rayfinned fish and amphibians share a common ancestor that was not an ancestor of the other tetrapods the new information would cause us to define a rayfinnedfishandamphibian clade altering the cladogram the relationship between clades can be described in several ways the following terms are used to identify shared or distinct characters among groups the terms symplesiomorphy and synapomorphy are relative and their application depends on the position of a group within a tree an apomorphy of one clade is a plesiomorphy of another contained within it  for example when trying to decide whether tetrapods should form a clade an important question is whether having four limbs is a synapomorphy of all the taxa to be included within tetrapoda did all the possible members of the tetrapoda inherit four limbs from a common ancestor whereas all other vertebrates did not  by contrast for a group within the tetrapods such as birds having four limbs is a plesiomorphy the fact that ostriches and rheas both have four limbs does not provide any support for putting them into a separate group of flightless birds  using these two terms allows a greater precision in the discussion of homology in particular allowing clear expression of the hierarchical relationships among different homologies it can be difficult to decide whether a character is in fact the same and thus can classified as a synapomorphy which may identify a group or whether it only appears to be the same and is thus a homoplasy which cannot identify a group  there is a danger of circular reasoning assumptions about the shape of a phylogenetic tree are used to justify decisions about characters which are then used as evidence for the shape of the tree it has been argued that this kind of reasoning has been used by proponents of the view that birds are nested within the theropod dinosaur clade three main types of group can be identified on the basis of their relationships in cladograms the three can be defined in two different but related ways as shown in the table below the first is in terms of the shape of a set of nodes taken from a cladogram  in this approach an ancestor node is simply a branching point in the diagram it may or may not correspond to an actual ancestor the second is in terms of the characters of the taxa being classified and how these characters have been inherited  in this approach an ancestor is an actual taxon whether currently known or not the nodebased definition of a monophyletic group ie a clade given above regards the lines in the cladogram only as a way of showing connections between taxa  this is appropriate when considering only living extant taxa however when extinct taxa are to be included in a cladogram lines correspond to sequences of ancestors  there are two alternative ways of defining a clade which explicitly take into account the line below the branching point at the base of a clade  these definitions are most notably set out in the phylocode consider how a clade combining a and b in the diagram can be defined note that these alternative definitions do not alter the classification of the tips of the tree and so are equivalent if only living extant taxa are being considered cladists use cladograms diagrams which show ancestral relations between taxa to represent the evolutionary tree of life  although traditionally such cladograms were generated largely on the basis of morphological characters molecular sequencing data and computational phylogenetics are now very commonly used in the generation of cladograms the starting point of cladistic analysis is a group of species and molecular morphological or other data characterizing those species the end result is a treelike relationship diagram called a cladogram or sometimes a dendrogram greek for tree drawing the cladogram graphically represents a hypothetical evolutionary process  cladograms are subject to revision as additional data become available the terms evolutionary tree and sometimes phylogenetic tree are often used synonymously with cladogram but others treat phylogenetic tree as a broader term that includes trees generated with a nonevolutionary emphasis  in cladograms all species lie at the leaves the two taxa on either side of a split with a common ancestor and no additional descendents are called sister taxa or sister groups  each subtree whether it contains only two or a hundred thousand items is called a clade  many cladists require that all forks in a cladogram be 2way forks some cladograms include 3way or 4way forks when there are insufficient data to resolve the forking to a higher level of detail see under phylogenetic tree for a given set of taxa the number of distinct cladograms that can be drawn ignoring which cladogram best matches the taxon characteristics is this superexponential growth of the number of possible cladograms explains why manual creation of cladograms becomes very difficult when the number of taxa is large if a cladogram represents n taxa the number of levels the depth in the cladogram is on the order of log2n  for example if there are 32 species of deer a cladogram representing deer could be around 5 levels deep because 25  32 although this is really just the lower limit a cladogram representing the complete tree of life with about 10 million species could be about 23 levels deep  this formula gives a lower limit with the actual depth generally a larger value because the various branches of the cladogram will not be uniformly deep   conversely the depth may be shallower if forks larger than 2way forks are permitted a cladogram tree has an implicit time axis with time running forward from the base of the tree to the leaves of the tree if the approximate date for example expressed as millions of years ago of all the evolutionary forks were known those dates could be captured in the cladogram  thus the time axis of the cladogram could be assigned a time scale eg 1cm  1 million years and the forks of the tree could be graphically located along the time axis   such cladograms are called scaled cladograms  many cladograms are not of this type for a variety of reasons cladistics makes no distinction between extinct and extant species and it is appropriate to include extinct species in the group of organisms being analyzed  cladograms that are based on dnarna generally do not include extinct species because dnarna samples from extinct species are rare  cladograms based on morphology especially morphological characteristics that are preserved in fossils are more likely to include extinct species most taxonomists have used the traditional approaches of linnaean taxonomy and later evolutionary taxonomy to organize life forms  these approaches use several fixed levels of a hierarchy such as kingdom phylum class order and family   phylogenetic nomenclature does not feature those terms because the evolutionary tree is so deep and so complex that it is inadvisable to set a fixed number of levels evolutionary taxonomy insists that groups reflect phylogenies  in contrast linnaean taxonomy allows both monophyletic and paraphyletic groups as taxa  since the early 20th century linnaean taxonomists have generally attempted to make at least family and lowerlevel taxa ie those regulated by the codes of nomenclature monophyletic  ernst mayr in 1985 drew a distinction between the terms cladistics and phylogeny  it would seem to me to be quite evident that the two concepts of phylogeny and their role in the construction of classifications are sufficiently different to require terminological distinction the term phylogeny should be retained for the broad concept of phylogeny promoted by darwin and adopted by most students of phylogeny in the ensuing 90 years the concept of phylogeny as mere genealogy should be terminologically distinguished as cladistics  to lump the two concepts together terminologically could not help but produce harmful equivocation  willi hennigs pioneering work provoked a spirited debate about the relative merits of phylogenetic nomenclature versus linnaean or evolutionary taxonomy which has continued down to the present however hennig did not advocate abandoning the linnaean nomenclatural system some of the debates in which the cladists were engaged had been running since the 19th century but they were renewed fervor as can be seen from the foreword to hennig 1979 by rosen nelson and pattersonencumbered with vague and slippery ideas about adaptation fitness biological species and natural selection neodarwinism summed up in the evolutionary systematics of mayr and simpson not only lacked a definable investigatory method but came to depend both for evolutionary interpretation and classification on consensus or authority phylogenetic nomenclature strictly and exclusively follows phylogeny and has arbitrarily deep trees with binary branching each taxon corresponds to a clade  linnaean taxonomy while since the advent of evolutionary theory following phylogeny also may subjectively consider similarity and has a fixed hierarchy of taxonomic ranks and its taxa are not required to correspond to clades many cladists discourage the use of paraphyletic groups in classification of organisms because they detract from cladistics emphasis on clades monophyletic groups   in contrast proponents of the use of paraphyletic groups argue that any dividing line in a cladogram creates both a monophyletic section above and a paraphyletic section below they also contend that paraphyletic taxa are necessary for classifying earlier sections of the tree  for instance the early vertebrates that would someday evolve into the family hominidae cannot be placed in any other monophyletic family they also argue that paraphyletic taxa provide information about significant changes in organisms morphology ecology or life history  in short that both paraphyletic groups and clades are valuable notions with separate purposes the cladistic tree of life is a fractalthe tree of life is inherently fractallike in its complexity  look closely at the lineage of a phylogeny and it dissolves into many smaller lineages and so on down to a very fine scale the overall shape of a dichotomous bifurcating tree is recursive as a viewpoint zooms into the tree of life the same type of tree appears no matter what the scale  when extinct species are considered both known and unknown the complexity and depth of the tree can be very large  moreover the tree continues to recreate itself by bifurcation a series of events called fractal evolution  every single speciation event including all the species that are now extinct represents an additional fork on the hypothetical complete cladogram of the tree of life the tree of life is a quasiselfsimilar fractal that is the deep reconstruction is not as regular as the shallow reconstruction  by shallow mishler means the most recent branching toward and at the tips and by deep the more ancient branches further back which are harder to reconstruct and are missing unknown extinct lines  in the shallow part of the tree branching events are relatively regular it is often possible to estimate the times between them  in the deep part of the tree homology assessments are difficult and the times vary widely  at this level eldredges and goulds punctuated equilibrium applies which hypothesizes long periods of stability followed by punctuations of rapid speciation based on the fossil record a formal code of phylogenetic nomenclature the phylocode is currently under development it is intended for use by both those who would like to abandon linnaean taxonomy and those who would like to use taxa and clades side by side  in several instances see for example hesperornithes it has been employed to clarify uncertainties in linnaean systematics so that in combination they yield a taxonomy that unambiguously places problematic groups in the evolutionary tree in a way that is consistent with current knowledge for example linnaean taxonomy contains the taxon tetrapoda defined morphologically as vertebrates with four limbs as well as animals with fourlimbed ancestors such as snakes which is often given the rank of superclass and divides into the classes amphibia reptilia aves mammalia phylogenetic nomenclature also contains the taxon tetrapoda see the diagram under clades above whose living members can be classified phylogenically as the clade defined by the common ancestor of amphibians and mammals or more precisely the clade defined by the common ancestor of a specific amphibian and mammal or bird or snake  this definition gives us the crown group tetrapods or crowntetrapoda a few primitive four legged ancestors the ichthyostegalia fall outside crowntetrapoda an alternative is to define tetrapoda as all animals more closely related to mammals than to lungfish our nearest living nontetrapod relatives  in this definition the ichthyostegalians are included together with a host of fossil animals usually classed as crossopterygian fish  this wider definition is termed pantetrapoda a third option is to define tetrapoda according to their apomorphy their unique trait ie having legs rather than fins a definition that yield the same group as the linnaean taxon non of the phylogenetic taxa as described above have a rank and neither do its subtaxa  all the subclades are contained within one another the clades are not divided into several nonoverlapping taxa as in traditional taxonomy rather the clade is split into two clades at the first branching a process repeated throughout  with regards to the traditional classes aves and mammalia are subclades contained in the subclade amniota while reptilia and amphibia are paraphyletic taxa not clades  instead of classifying nonmammalian nonavian amniotes as reptiles amniota is divided into the two clades sauropsida which contains birds and all living amniotes other than mammals including all living traditional reptiles and theropsida mammals and the extinct mammallike reptiles  similarly amphibia can be split into the batrachomorpha fossil amphibians more closely related to modern amphibians and reptiliomorpha the latter of which the amiotes is a subclade  ichthyostegalians and other stemtetrapods represent sister groups from splits predating the batrachomorphareptilopmorpha split proponents of phylogenetic nomenclature enumerate key distinctions between phylogenetic nomenclature and linnaean taxonomy as follows critics of phylogenetic nomenclature include ashlock mayr and williams some of their criticisms include the comparisons used to acquire data on which cladograms can be based are not limited to the field of biology  any group of individuals or classes hypothesized to have a common ancestor and to which a set of common characteristics may or may not apply can be compared pairwise  cladograms can be used to depict the hypothetical descent relationships within groups of items in many different academic realms the only requirement is that the items have characteristics that can be identified and measured recent attempts to use cladistic methods outside of biology address the reconstruction of lineages in 
foreignrelationsofcambodia cambodia is involved in a dispute regarding offshore islands and sections of the boundary with vietnam in addition the maritime boundary cambodia has with vietnam is undefined   parts of cambodias border with thailand are indefinite and the maritime boundary with thailand is not clearly defined cambodia is a transshipment site for golden triangle heroin and possibly a site of money laundering   reportedly there is corruption related to narcotics in parts of the government military and police   cambodia is also a possible site of smallscale opium heroin and amphetamine production the country is a large producer of cannabis for the international market japan has an embassy in phnom penh trade is sizable between the two countries japanese investment in cambodia includes phnom penh commercial bank a joint venture of hyundai switzerland and japanese sbi group opened in 2008 japan remains cambodias top donor country providing some us12 billion in total overseas development assistance oda during the period since 1992 in 2006 japanese and cambodian governments signed an agreement outlining a new japanese aid program worth us59 million the japanese government has provided significant assistance for demining and education the relations of pakistan with cambodia vary and range from cultural to cooperative strategical and political interests  pakistan has an embassy in phnom penh although cambodia does not have an embassy in pakistan relations between cambodia and the peoples republic of china have strengthened considerably after the end of the cambodianvietnamese war during which china had supported the khmer rouge against vietnam the relations between both countries were strong since the soviet era  russia has an embassy in phnom penh cambodia has an embassy in moscow both countries are full members of the east asia summit both countries established diplomatic relations on 1970 whereas it was ceased during khmer rouge later the two countries agreed to reconcile bilateral relations in 1996 and establish official embassies in 1997  in 2006 pm hun sen of cambodia visited seoul while president roh moo hyun and first lady gwon yang suk in november 2006   investment from south korea has been increased to us  148 billion by 2007 which reached fourth largest value toward foreign countries from seoul cambodia and thailand dispute sections of boundary with missing boundary markers and have an undefined maritime border   on 5 november 2009 thailand recalled its ambassador from cambodia in protest of the cambodian governments appointment of thai exleader thaksin shinawatra as an economic adviser in the past two years bilateral relations between the us and cambodia have strengthened the us supports efforts in cambodia to combat terrorism build democratic institutions promote human rights foster economic development eliminate corruption achieve the fullest possible accounting for americans missing from the vietnam warera and to bring to justice those most responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed under the khmer rouge regime bilateral relations between the kingdom of cambodia and the socialist republic of vietnam were for long strained due to the cambodianvietnamese war 19761990  both nations have since taken steps to establish friendly ties the maritime boundary with vietnam is hampered by unresolved dispute over sovereignty of offshore islands 
foreignrelationsofthecentralafricanrepublic president franois boziz says that one of his priorities is to get the support of the international community  this has indeed been visible in his relations to donor countries and international organisations  at the same time it is difficult to have an open policy towards neighbouring countries when they are used as safe haven by rebels regularly attacking central african republic car or when one allied country is in war with another as is chadsudan the military of the central african republic cannoteven with the support of france and the multinational force of the economic and monetary community of central africa fomucexert control over its own borders  hence armed groups are regularly entering the country from chad and sudan the president says in an interview that he has a good relation with neighbours and fellow cemac countries put aside the incident with sudan when the border had to be closed since militia entered car territory the central african republic is an active member in several central african organizations including the economic and monetary union cemac the economic community of central african states ceeac the central african peace and security council copaxstill under formation and the central bank of central african states beac standardization of tax customs and security arrangements between the central african states is a major foreign policy objective of the car government the car is a participant in the community of sahelsaharan states censad and the african union au other multilateral organizationsincluding the world bank international monetary fund un agencies european union and the african development bankand bilateral donorsincluding germany japan the european union and the united statesare significant development partners for the car nineteen countries have resident diplomatic representatives in bangui and the car maintains approximately the same number of missions abroad  since early 1989 the government recognizes both israel and the palestinian state the car also maintains diplomatic relations with the peoples republic of china the car generally joins other african and developing country states in consensus positions on major policy issues the most important countries the car maintains bilateral relations include the following although drops in its external assistance budget have reduced french military and social development aid to the country france remains the most important bilateral donor and the country from which car receives most imports  its historic ties its long military presence as well as its economic influence have also given it a political influence the country closed its military bases in bangui and bouar in 1997 as a part of its new africa policy and relations with car decreased during the rule of former president angeflix patass france was however the first country to recognise bozizs government and during his time in power france has given logistic and intelligence support to the peace missions in the country cameroon is probably the foreign country that most central africans identify with since most people live in the western part of the country close to the cameroon border it is also the most important regional trade partner of car most of the countrys imports pass through the port of douala before being transported by truck to car most of the 1450km road to the coast is now paved only a short distance remains  following the increase of violence in northwestern car in late2005 there were at the end of 2006 about 48000 refugees from car in cameroon chad is one of president bozizs closest allies  before seizing power in 2003 bozizs rebel group was equipped and trained in chad the group that finally overthrew president patass consisted ofin addition to bozizs own rebels100 soldiers from chads military in addition to the 121 chadian soldiers in the multinational force in the central african republic fomuc there are still 150 soldiers from chad in the car the majority is found within the presidents lifeguard while others patrol bangui and the northwest parts of the country  chads president idriss dby has an interest in tranquility in northwestern car due to the proximity to the location of the chadcameroon petroleum development and pipeline project in april 2006 the chadian rebel group united front for democratic change which is based in darfur used car as a transit route to chad when attacking ndjamena boziz who has received much support from president dby immediately decided to close the carsudan border a decision which he has no capacity at all to enforce the border was officially closed between april and december  already a couple of weeks later an antonov cargo plane crossed the border from sudan and landed at tiringoulou airport in car where it unloaded weapons and about 50 armed men who spread out in the area  in the end of june central african military and fomuc peacekeepers clashed with these men near gordil resulting in at least 30 casualties chad had also maintained good relations with the previous president patass they were one of the countries that sent troops to defend patass during the mutinies in 19961997 and assisted in negotiating the subsequent bangui accords  following the increase of violence in northwestern car in late2005 there were at the end of 2006 about 50000 refugees from car in chad boziz has surprisingly good relations both with the drc president joseph kabila and the former rebel leader jeanpierre bemba when the old president kolingba tried to overthrow patass in may 2001 the movement for the liberation of congo mlc came to his rescue  mlc controlled the northern part of drc and its rebels were stationed on the other side of the ubangi river from bangui the mlc executed between 60 and 120 persons mainly from the yakoma tribe and committed atrocitiesincluding killing looting and rapeagainst the population  this terror and the crimes carried out during mlcs war against bozizs rebels between october 2002 and march 2003 is now being investigated by the international criminal court which says it has identified 600 rape victims and the real numbers are expected to be higher  most of the crimes were committed by congolese mlc soldiers but bozizs rebels including elements from chad were also responsible  during bozizs time in power new clashes have taken place between his soldiers and the mlc boziz has strengthened military presence along the border and deployed an amphibious force patrolling the ubangi river  there were refugees from drc in car from july 1999 when kabila advanced in the region bordering car the refugees were repatriated following an agreement between unhcr and the governments of the two countries in 2004  refugees from car in drc were beginning to be repatriated in july 2004 relations with gabon are good although it is not a neighbouring country  gabon hosted a meeting in 2005 to solve the crisis following boziz barring of some candidates in the election libya still plays an important role in the domestic politics of car libya assisted car in negotiating a peace agreement was signed in tripoli in february 2007 between president boziz and the head of the front dmocratique du people centrafricain fdpc rebel movement who is also said to have close ties to union of democratic forces for unity ufdr the rebel group that seized several cities in northern car in november 2006  libya was previously one of the former president patasss closest allies providing him with strong military support when he no longer trusted his own military or france patass granted libyan enterprises outstanding economic advantages such as a 99 year concession on diamonds gold oil and uranium all over the country it is not known whether these agreements are still valid but boziz has anyway a continuously good relation with libya during the election in 2005 president denis sassounguesso openly supported boziz the current fomuc mission in car includes soldiers from congobrazzaville given that boziz accuses sudan of supporting the ufdr rebels who are actively fighting the central african government the relation between the two countries has remained good  boziz even planned to visit khartoum in december 2006 but had to cancel his trip when chad which has strained relations with the sudanese government threatened to withdraw its military support to car sudan was one of the contributors to the peacekeeping force of the he community of sahelsaharan states censad in central african republic in 20012002 the us embassy in bangui was briefly closed as a result of the 199697 mutinies it reopened in 1998 with limited staff but us agency for international development usaid and peace corps missions previously operating in bangui did not return the american embassy in bangui again temporarily suspended operations on november 2 2002 in response to security concerns raised by the october 2002 launch of franois bozizs 2003 military coup the embassy reopened in january 2005 however there currently is limited us diplomaticconsular representation in the car as a result the ability of the embassy to provide services to american citizens remains extremely limited the united states department of state approved the lifting of section 508 aid restrictions triggered by the coup us assistance to the central african republic had been prohibited except in the areas of humanitarian aid and support for democratization 
politicsofcroatia the politics of croatia takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic whereby the prime minister of croatia is the head of government and of a multiparty system  executive power is exercised by the government  legislative power is vested in the croatian parliament sabor the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature it adopted its current constitution on december 22 1990 and declared independence from yugoslavia on june 25 1991 amendments to the constitution have happened four times the main executive power of croatian state is the government in croatian vlada presided by the prime minister the government ministers the cabinet are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the parliament the prime minister is the head of government appointed by the president with the consent of the parliament who takes his duty when parliament gives its consent by absolute majority of all representatives government ministers are from croatian democratic union hdz and croatian peasant party hss the president of the republic of croatia is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a fiveyear term a president may not serve more than two terms the president has limited executive powers heshe is still commanderofchief of the armed forces heshe cooperates in formulation and execution of the foreign policy and the national security policy represents croatia home and abroad convenes parliament and can bring issues at government the main duty of the president is that heshe is granted power to issue decrees with the force of law during war time the croatian legislature is the hrvatski sabor the assembly is unicameral between 100 and 160 members exact number was decided by the legislature   elected for a four year term 140 members in multiseat constituencies up to 6 members chosen by proportional representation to represent croatians residing abroad and 5 members of ethnic and national communities or minorities the chamber of counties or upanijski dom used to be composed of three deputies from each of the 21 counties upanije however as it had no practical power over the chamber of representatives in 2001 it was abolished and its powers transferred directly to the county governments the sabor meets in public sessions in two periods  january 15 to june 30 and september 15 to december 15  extra sessions can be called by the president of the republic by the president of the parliament or by government the powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution passage of laws adoption of the state budget declarations of war and peace alteration of the boundaries of the republic calling referendums carrying out elections appointments and relief of office supervising the work of the government of croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the sabor and granting amnesty decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the chamber is present except in cases of national rights and constitutional issues the last parliamentary elections were held november 23 2003 the supreme court vrhovni sud of the republic of croatia is the highest court  court hearings are open and judgments are made publicly except in issues of privacy of the accused  judges are appointed by the national judicial council and judicial office is permanent until seventy years of age the president of the supreme court is elected for a fouryear term by the croatian parliament at the proposal of the president of the republic the constitutional court  ustavni sud of the republic of croatia decides on the constitutionality of laws and has the right to repeal a law it finds unconstitutional it also can impeach the president the body is made up of thirteen judges for an eightyear term the president of the constitutional court is elected by the court for a fouryear term the national judicial council dravno sudbeno vijee of the republic appoints all judges it is a body consisting of a president and fourteen members proposed and elected by the parliament for fouryear terms maximum two terms the country is composed of 20 counties upanijas and one city grad zagreb the counties and county centres are counties are regional selfgovernment units that carry out the affairs of regional significance and in particular the affairs related to education health service area and urban planning economic development traffic and traffic infrastructure and the development of network of educational health social and cultural institutions in practice this autonomy is very limited since counties must obey national laws and executive orders from the national level municipalities and towns are local selfgovernment units that carry out the affairs of local jurisdiction by which the needs of citizens are directly fulfilled and in particular the affairs related to the organisation of localities and housing area and urban planning public utilities child care social welfare primary health services education and elementary schools culture physical education and sports customer protection protection and improvement of the environment fire protection and civil defence stjepan radi was a croatian politician and the founder of the croatian peasant party cpp hrvatska seljaka stranka in 1905  radi is credited with galvanizing the croatian peasantry into a viable political force for the first time  under the pressure from the great powers british empire france united states as well as honouring the secret deals that were struck between the antanta and the kingdom of serbia the kingdom of serbs croats and slovenes was established and two representatives of radis party by then named the croatian commonpeople peasant party were appointed to the provisional representation which served as a parliament until elections for the constituent could be held  death threats and threats of violent beatings were made against stjepan radi in parliament without any intervention by the president of the assembly parliamentary speaker  in the assembly punia rai a member of serbian peoples radical party from montenegro got up and made a provocative speech which produced a stormy reaction from the opposition but radi himself stayed completely silent  finally ivan pernar shouted thou plundered beys  at this punia rai drew out a revolver shot pernar and went on to shoot radi and several other cpp delegates source  zvonimir kulundi atentat na stjepana radiathe assassination of stjepan radi radi was left for dead and indeed had such a serious stomach wound that he died several months later at the age of 57 following the ethnic tensions triggered by the shooting in january 1929 king aleksandar karaorevi abolished the constitution dissolved parliament and declared a royal dictatorshipradis violent death turned him into a martyr and he was turned into an icon of political struggle for the peasantry and the working class as well as an icon of croatian patriots the iconography of stjepan radi was later used not only by his successor vladko maek but also by other political options in croatia right wing or left wing the ustae used the death of stjepan radi as proof of serbian hegemony and as an excuse for their treatment of serbs however many leading cpp figures were imprisoned or killed by the ustashe the partisans on the other hand used this as a recruiting point with cpp members who were disillusioned with the ndh a latter had one brigade named after antun and stjepan radi in 1943 the croatian communist party was the only party during socialist yugoslavia 19451990  the change of the name to league of communists of croatia savez komunista hrvatske skh in the fifties was intended to emphasize the advisory role of the party while actual power was supposed to be in hands of the working class  there were very few controversies and factional clashes in the skh among the most important was the so called croatian spring in 1971 when some leaders of the skh most notably savka dabevikuar and miko tripalo attempted to increase the political and economical independence of croatia from other yugoslav republics  although croatian spring was broken the leaders lost their political position and were forced into isolation and less important leaders were persecuted practically all the intentions of the mentioned national leaders were accepted and introduced in yugoslavian constitution from 1974 that constitution was relatively unfortunate in a sense that it did not delimit the responsibilities of the republics and federation in yugoslavia clearly  as a result when league of communists lost its unity and authority and republics started to make opposite even aggressive political movements the central government of yugoslavia was unable to act  as a result neither a peaceful break up nor a military putsch was possible in the time of crisis and country ended in bloody tragic war in the situation where serb leaders especially members of the serbian academy of sciences and arts and serbian president slobodan miloevi started to threaten croatia and prepare for a war the first multiparty elections took place in 1990  the league of communists changed its policy and name to the party of democratic changes sdp however the impression of the people was that this party could not respond to miloevis threats adequately the rightwing was represented by the croatian democratic union hdz led by the communist general later croatian nationalist and dissident franjo tuman third bloc at the elections was coalition of peoples accord alliance of mostly moderate nationalist parties that included croatian social liberal party hsls social democrats of croatia sdsh croatian democratic party hds as well as many prominent veterans of croatian spring due to voting system that favoured two strong parties coalition got surprisingly few seats during that election and hdz won easily however increased crime in all parts of the society and a growing personal cult of franjo tuman caused revival of the popularity of the at one moment almost dead excommunist party  vujis sdsh united with sdp hsls split into two parties led by their charismatic leaders  vlado gotovacs liberal party and the more nationalist draen budia won administrative control over hsls in following years these two leaders especially budisa led inconsistent policy which resulted in a significant drop in support for the once third most important party in croatia d budisa even left the party at one point but he was persuaded to return for the 2000 elections the social democratic party of croatia sdp and the croatian social liberal party hsls agreed on a join electoral list as did the croatian peasants party hss croatian peoples party hns liberal party of croatia ls and istrian democratic assembly ids although these six parties went into the election under two separate lists they had negotiated an outline agreement for a coalition before the election and were known as the estorica or the six the sixparty centreleft coalition was in power until june 2001 when ids left the governing coalition over its inability to win greater autonomy for istria hsls split again the initial splitoff formed ls in 2002 the main faction left the government while a dissenting faction formed libra and stayed in power the sdpled coalition remained in power until the legislative elections of 2003 when they narrowly lost the majority to hdz and other centerright parties hdz formed a government in december 2003 even though they havent formed a major coalition with parties like hss and croatian party of rights hsp it appears however that the new hdz under the leadership of i sanader is positioned significantly more on the center than early hdz was accession to membership of the european union is presently a stated national goal for most mainstream parties although they vary in the amount of cooperation with the eu rules the main issues remain in the areas of postwar recovery both political refugee return war crime trials and economic agricultural importexport policy one of the more recent trends in croatian politics is deep alienation of croatian public from croatian political establishment it manifested itself on the latest presidential and local elections through record low turnouts and support for candidates and options that represented alternative to croatian political mainstream one of the stated reasons for such alienation is in mainstream political parties being oriented towards centre and having almost identical platforms  another is parties being heavily centralised and  perceived more as representatives of their leaders personal interests than any palpable political platform  proportional representation voting system which leads to coalition governments that often dont make any political sense  a phenomenon which gained a lot of notoriety after 2005 local elections  also contributed to those trends  croatian public appears to prefer strong personalities with populist tendencies  like boris miki milan bandi and branimir glava  to wellestablished parties or any particular ideology the alienation from croatian political mainstream has also manifested itself in the dramatic rise of euroscepticism among general public 
computernetworking the three types of networks are the internet the intranet and the extranet  examples of different network methods are all networks are interconnected to allow communication with a variety of different kinds of media including twistedpair copper wire cable coaxial cable optical fiber power lines and various wireless technologies the devices can be separated by a few meters eg via bluetooth or nearly unlimited distances eg via the interconnections of the internet networking routers routing protocols and networking over the public internet have their specifications defined in documents called rfcs users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks  users can share printers and some servers from a workgroup which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same lan whereas a network administrator is responsible to keep that network up and running a community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers  and possibly also communicate via peertopeer technologies network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives the physical perspective involves geographic locations physical cabling and the network elements eg routers bridges and application layer gateways that interconnect the physical media  logical networks called in the tcpip architecture subnets map onto one or more physical media  for example a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of lan cables in each building appear to be a common subnet using  virtual lan vlan technology both users and administrators will be aware to varying extents of the trust and scope characteristics of a network  again using tcpip architectural terminology an intranet is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise and is only accessible by authorized users eg employees   intranets do not have to be connected to the internet but generally have a limited connection an extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet eg business partners customers unofficially the internet is the set of users enterprises and content providers that are interconnected by internet service providers isp from an engineering viewpoint the internet is the set of subnets and aggregates of subnets which share the registered ip address space and exchange information about the reachability of those ip addresses using the border gateway protocol typically the humanreadable names of servers are translated to ip addresses transparently to users via the directory function of the domain name system dns over the internet there can be  businesstobusiness b2b  businesstoconsumer b2c and consumertoconsumer c2c communications  especially when money or sensitive information is exchanged the communications are apt to be secured by some form of communications security mechanism   intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the internet without any access by general internet users using secure virtual private network vpn technology when used for gaming one computer will need to be the server while the others play through it before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications system communication between calculation machines and early computers was performed by human users by carrying instructions between them  many of the social behaviors seen in todays internet were demonstrably present in the nineteenth century and arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals in september 1940 george stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his model at dartmouth college in new hampshire to his complex number calculator in new york and received results back by the same means  linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an interest at the advanced research projects agency arpa when in 1962 jcr licklider was hired and developed a working group he called the intergalactic network a precursor to the arpanet in 1964 researchers at dartmouth developed the dartmouth time sharing system for distributed users of large computer systems the same year at mit a research group supported by general electric and bell labs used a computer decs to route and manage telephone connections throughout the 1960s leonard kleinrock paul baran and donald davies independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used datagrams or packets that could be used in a network between computer systems the first widely used pstn switch that used true computer control was the western electric introduced in 1965 in 1969 the university of california at los angeles sri in stanford university of california at santa barbara and the university of utah were connected as the beginning of the arpanet network using 50 kbits circuits   commercial services using x25 were deployed in 1972 and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding tcpip networks computer networks and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between them continue to drive computer hardware software and peripherals industries  this expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home user today computer networks are the core of modern communication  all modern aspects of the public switched telephone network pstn are computercontrolled and telephony increasingly runs over the internet protocol although not necessarily the public internet the scope of communication has increased significantly in the past decade and this boom in communications would not have been possible without the progressively advancing computer network one way to categorize computer networks is by their geographic scope although many realworld networks interconnect local area networks lan via wide area networks wan and wireless wide area networks wwan these three broad types are a local area network is a network that spans a relatively small space and provides services to a small number of people a peertopeer or clientserver method of networking may be used a peertopeer network is where each client shares their resources with other workstations in the network  examples of peertopeer networks are  small office networks where resource use is minimal and a home network a clientserver network is where every client is connected to the server and each other  clientserver networks use servers in different capacities  these can be classified into two types the server performs one task such as file server while other servers can not only perform in the capacity of file servers and print servers but also can conduct calculations and use them to provide information to clients webintranet server computers may be connected in many different ways including ethernet cables wireless networks or other types of wires such as power lines or phone lines the itut ghn standard is an example of a technology that provides highspeed up to 1 gbits local area networking over existing home wiring power lines phone lines and coaxial cables a wide area network is a network where a wide variety of resources are deployed across a large domestic area or internationally an example of this is a multinational business that uses a wan to interconnect their offices in different countries the largest and best example of a wan is the internet which is a network composed of many smaller networks the internet is considered the largest network in the world the pstn public switched telephone network also is an extremely large network that is converging to use internet technologies although not necessarily through the public internet a wide area network involves communication through the use of a wide range of different technologies  these technologies include pointtopoint wans such as pointtopoint protocol ppp and highlevel data link control hdlc frame relay atm asynchronous transfer mode and sonet synchronous optical network the difference between the wan technologies is based on the switching capabilities they perform and the speed at which sending and receiving bits of information data occur a wireless network is basically the same as a lan or a wan but there are no wires between hosts and servers the data is transferred over sets of radio transceivers  these types of networks are beneficial when it is too costly or inconvenient to run the necessary cables  for more information see wireless lan and wireless wide area network the media access protocols for lans come from the ieee the most common ieee 80211 wlans cover depending on antennas ranges from hundreds of meters to a few kilometers  for larger areas either communications satellites of various types cellular radio or wireless local loop ieee 80216 all have advantages and disadvantages  depending on the type of mobility needed the relevant standards may come from the ietf or the itu the network topology defines the way in which computers printers and other devices are connected physically and logically a network topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data transmissions network topology has two types commonly used topologies include the network topologies mentioned above are only a general representation of the kinds of topologies used in computer network and are considered basic topologies 
cyberpunk cyberpunk plots often center on a conflict among hackers artificial intelligences and megacorporations and tend to be set in a nearfuture earth rather than the farfuture settings or galactic vistas found in novels such as isaac asimovs foundation or frank herberts dune the settings are usually postindustrial dystopias but tend to be marked by extraordinary cultural ferment and the use of technology in ways never anticipated by its creators the street finds its own uses for things  much of the genres atmosphere echoes film noir and written works in the genre often use techniques from detective fiction primary exponents of the cyberpunk field include william gibson neal stephenson bruce sterling pat cadigan rudy rucker and john shirley many influential films such as blade runner and the matrix trilogy can be seen as prominent examples of the cyberpunk style and theme cyberpunk writers tend to use elements from the hardboiled detective novel film noir and postmodernist prose to describe the often nihilistic underground side of an electronic society the genres vision of a troubled future is often called the antithesis of the generally utopian visions of the future popular in the 1940s and 1950s  gibson defined cyberpunks antipathy towards utopian sf in his 1981 short story the gernsback continuum which pokes fun at and to a certain extent condemns utopian science fiction in some cyberpunk writing much of the action takes place online in cyberspace blurring the border between actual and virtual reality a typical trope in such work is a direct connection between the human brain and computer systems  cyberpunk depicts the world as a dark sinister place with networked computers dominating every aspect of life  giant multinational corporations have for the most part replaced governments as centers of political economic and even military power protagonists in cyberpunk writing usually include computer hackers who are often patterned on the idea of the lone hero fighting injustice such as robin hood one of the cyberpunk genres prototype characters is case from gibsons neuromancer case is a console cowboy a brilliant hacker who had betrayed his organized criminal partners  robbed of his talent through a crippling injury inflicted by the vengeful partners case unexpectedly receives a onceinalifetime opportunity to be healed by expert medical care but only if he participates in another criminal enterprise with a new crew like case many cyberpunk protagonists are manipulated placed in situations where they have little or no choice and although they might see things through they do not necessarily come out any further ahead than they previously were  these antiheroescriminals outcasts visionaries dissenters and misfits call to mind the private eye of detective novels  this emphasis on the misfits and the malcontents is the punk component of cyberpunk cyberpunk can be intended to disquiet readers and call them to action it often expresses a sense of rebellion suggesting that one could describe it as a type of culture revolution in science fiction  in the words of author and critic david brin cyberpunk stories have also been seen as fictional forecasts of the evolution of the internet the earliest descriptions of a global communications network came long before the world wide web entered popular awareness though not before traditional sciencefiction writers such as arthur c clarke and some social commentators such as james burke began predicting that such networks would eventually form the sciencefiction editor gardner dozois is generally acknowledged as the person who popularized the use of the term cyberpunk as a kind of literature although minnesota writer bruce bethke coined the term in 1980 for his short story cyberpunk which was published in the november 1983 issue of amazing science fiction stories the term was quickly appropriated as a label to be applied to the works of william gibson bruce sterling pat cadigan and others  of these sterling became the movements chief ideologue thanks to his fanzine cheap truth john shirley wrote articles on sterling and ruckers significance william gibson with his novel neuromancer 1984 is likely the most famous writer connected with the term cyberpunk he emphasized style a fascination with surfaces and atmosphere over traditional sciencefiction tropes  regarded as groundbreaking and sometimes as the archetypal cyberpunk work early on cyberpunk was hailed as a radical departure from sciencefiction standards and a new manifestation of vitality  shortly thereafter however many critics arose to challenge its status as a revolutionary movement  these critics said that the sf new wave of the 1960s was much more innovative as far as narrative techniques and styles were concerned  furthermore while neuromancers narrator may have had an unusual voice for science fiction much older examples can be found  gibsons narrative voice for example resembles that of an updated raymond chandler as in his novel the big sleep 1939 in 1994 scholar brian stonehill suggested that thomas pynchons 1973 novel gravitys rainbow not only curses but precurses what we now glibly dub cyberspace  other important predecessors include alfred besters two most celebrated novels the demolished man and the stars my destination as well as vernor vinges novella true names sciencefiction writer david brin describes cyberpunk as the finest free promotion campaign ever waged on behalf of science fiction it may not have attracted the real punks but it did ensnare many new readers and it provided the sort of movement that postmodern literary critics found alluring  cyberpunk made science fiction more attractive to academics argues brin in addition it made science fiction more profitable to hollywood and to the visual arts generally  although the selfimportant rhetoric and whines of persecution on the part of cyberpunk fans were irritating at worst and humorous at best brin declares that the rebels did shake things up we owe them a debt cyberpunk further inspired many professional writers who were not among the original cyberpunks to incorporate cyberpunk ideas into their own works such as george alec effingers when gravity fails wired magazine created by louis rossetto and jane metcalfe mixes new technology art literature and current topics in order to interest todays cyberpunk fans which paula yoo claims proves that hardcore hackers multimedia junkies cyberpunks and cellular freaks are poised to take over the world the film blade runner 1982 adapted from philip k dicks do androids dream of electric sheep is set in 2019 in a dystopian future in which manufactured beings called replicants are slaves used on space colonies and are legal prey on earth to various bounty hunters who retire kill them  although blade runner was largely unsuccessful in its first theatrical release it found a viewership in the home video market and became a cult film  since the movie omits the religious and mythical elements of dicks original novel eg empathy boxes and wilbur mercer it falls more strictly within the cyberpunk genre than the novel does  william gibson would later reveal that upon first viewing the film he was surprised at how the look of this film matched his vision when he was working on neuromancer the films tone has since been the staple of many cyberpunk movies such as the matrix 1999 which uses a wide variety of cyberpunk elements the number of films in the genre or at least using a few genre elements has grown steadily since blade runner several of philip k dicks works have been adapted to the silver screen the films johnny mnemonic and new rose hotel both based upon short stories by william gibson flopped commercially and critically in addition technoir film as a hybrid genre means a work of combining neonoir and science fiction or cyberpunk it includes many cyberpunk films such as blade runner the terminator 12 monkeys the lawnmower man and strange days cyberpunk themes are widely visible in anime and manga  in japan where cosplay is popular and not only teenagers display such fashion styles cyberpunk has been accepted and its influence is widespread  william gibsons neuromancer whose influence dominated the early cyberpunk movement was also set in chiba one of japans largest industrial areas although at the time of writing the novel gibson did not know the location of chiba and had no idea how perfectly it fit his vision in some ways the exposure to cyberpunk ideas and fiction in the mid 1980s has allowed it to seep into the japanese culture  even though most anime and manga is written in japan the cyberpunk anime and manga have a more futuristic and therefore international feel to them so they are widely accepted by all the conceptualization involved in cyberpunk is more of forging ahead looking at the new global culture it is a culture that does not exist right now so the japanese concept of a cyberpunk future seems just as valid as a western one especially as western cyberpunk often incorporates many japanese elements  william gibson is now a frequent visitor to japan and he came to see that many of his visions of japan have become a reality cyberpunk has influenced many anime and manga including the groundbreaking akira battle angel alita and ghost in the shell several roleplaying games rpgs called cyberpunk exist  cyberpunk cyberpunk 2020 and cyberpunk v3 by r talsorian games and gurps cyberpunk published by steve jackson games as a module of the gurps family of rpgs cyberpunk 2020 was designed with the settings of william gibsons writings in mind and to some extent with his approval unlike the approach taken by fasa in producing the transgenre shadowrun game  both are set in the near future in a world where cybernetics are prominent  in addition iron crown enterprises released an rpg named cyberspace which was out of print for several years until recently being rereleased in online pdf form in 1990 in a convergence of cyberpunk art and reality the united states secret service raided steve jackson gamess headquarters and confiscated all their computers  this was allegedly because the gurps cyberpunk sourcebook could be used to perpetrate computer crime  that was in fact not the main reason for the raid but after the event it was too late to correct the publics impression  steve jackson games later won a lawsuit against the secret service aided by the new electronic frontier foundation this event has achieved a sort of notoriety which has extended to the book itself as well  all published editions of gurps cyberpunk have a tagline on the front cover which reads the book that was seized by the us secret service inside the book provides a summary of the raid and its aftermath cyberpunk has also inspired several tabletop miniature and board games  netrunner is a collectible card game introduced in 1996 based on the cyberpunk 2020 roleplaying game computer games have frequently used cyberpunk as a source of inspiration such as the deus ex series and the system shock series as well as the mmorpg neocron other games like blade runner and the matrix games are based upon genre movies electronic arts and tilted mill also published a game called simcity societies in 2007 which features the ability for a cyberpunk society along with numerous others some real life places have been described as cyberpunk such as japan several subcultures have been inspired by cyberpunk fiction  these include the cyberdelic counter culture of the late 80s and early 90s  cyberdelic whose adherents referred to themselves as cyberpunks attempted to blend the psychedelic art and drug movement with the technology of cyberculture  early adherents included timothy leary mark frauenfelder and r u sirius the movement largely faded following the dotcom bubble implosion of 2000 cybergoth is a fashion and dance subculture which draws its inspiration from cyberpunk fiction as well as rave and gothic subcultures as a wider variety of writers began to work with cyberpunk concepts new subgenres of science fiction emerged some which could be considered as playing off the cyberpunk label others which could be considered as legitimate explorations into newer territory  these focused on technology and its social effects in different ways  one prominent subgenre is steampunk which is set in an alternate history victorian era that combines anachronistic technology with cyberpunks bleak film noir world view the term was originally coined around 1987 as a joke to describe some of the novels of tim powers james p blaylock and kw jeter but by the time gibson and sterling entered the subgenre with their collaborative novel the difference engine the term was being used earnestly as well another subgenre is biopunk cyberpunk themes dominated by biotechnology from the early 1990s a derivative style building on biotechnology rather than informational technology  in these stories people are changed in some way not by mechanical means but by genetic manipulation  paul di filippo is seen as the most prominent biopunk writer including his halfserious ribofunk  bruce sterlings shapermechanist cycle is also seen as a major influence  in addition some people consider works such as neal stephensons the diamond age to be postcyberpunk some musicians and acts have been classified as cyberpunk due to their aesthetic style and musical content  often dealing with dystopian visions of the future or biomechanical themes some fit more squarely in the category than others  bands whose music has been classified as cyberpunk include psydoll front line assembly and sigue sigue sputnik some musicians not normally associated with cyberpunk have at times been inspired to create concept albums exploring such themes  billy idols cyberpunk drew heavily from cyberpunk literature and the cyberdelic counter culture in its creation 1  outside a cyberpunk narrative fueled concept album by david bowie was warmly met by critics upon its release in 1995 most peopledatejanuary 2010 would view a lot of industrial music as cyberpunk as well as various electronic body music acts 
listofcountrycallingcodes the telephone numbering plan for a telephone system includes an international dialing prefix such as 00 or 011 which is added before the country calling code and is specific to the country from which the caller is dialling  generally as in the list below the need for this prefix is indicated with a  country calling codes form a prefix code hence they can be organized as a tree  in each row of the table below the country codes given in the leftmost column share the same first digit then subsequent columns give the second digit in ascending order while there is a general geographic grouping to the zones many exceptions exist for various political and historical reasons  thus the geographical indicators below are approximations only areas within nanpa north american numbering plan area are assigned area codes as if they were all areas within one country the codes below in format 1 xxx represent area code xxx within the 1 nanpa zone  not a separate country code the north american numbering plan area includes originally larger countries such as the united kingdom or france were assigned twodigit codes to compensate for their usually longer domestic numbers and small countries such as iceland were assigned threedigit codes however since the 1980s all new assignments have been threedigit regardless of countries populations in antarctica dialing is dependent on the parent country of each base other places with no calling codes please try to keep the country  territory names consistent with the cldr project please see the section consistency with unicode common locale data repository cldr ccitt the predecessor of the itu telecommunication standardization sector itut developed the first formal list of telephone country codes  this list was included in the 1964 ccitt blue book among other international telecommunication recommendations which would eventually become itut recommendation e164 an earlier system of country codes for european use was mentioned in the 1960 ccitt red book some of these country codes were retained in the ccitt country code assignments and remain in effect eg  france 33 united kingdom 44 for further details on country code history and development see httpwwwwtnginfowtnghsthtml history of country codes httpwwwwtnginfo wtng 
foreignrelationsofcolombia colombia seeks diplomatic and commercial relations with all countries regardless of their ideologies or political or economic systems  for this reason the colombian economy is very open relying on international trade and following the guidelines given by the international law regional relations remain good despite occasional issues with neighbors especially regarding spillover from colombias armed conflict including crossborder guerrilla crossings the flow of refugees and the spread of drug crops  these issues are of particular concern to the bordering countries of brazil ecuador panama peru and venezuela for example ecuador has closed its main border crossing with colombia every night since august 2002 when evidence emerged that colombian guerrillas and paramilitaries were asserting control over ecuadors border communities  on may 1 2004 ecuador placed further stringent visa restrictions on colombians seeking to enter ecuador relations with nicaragua and venezuela have been strained over territorial disputes  bilateral committees are negotiating the dispute with venezuela over waters in the gulf of venezuela other issues with venezuela include the presence of illegal undocumented colombians in venezuela and activities of colombian narcotics traffickers and venezuelas support for the guerrillas in colombia in 1969 colombia formed what is now the andean community along with bolivia chile ecuador and peru venezuela joined in 1973 and chile left in 1976 in the 1980s colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations joining the contadora group the group of eight now the rio group and the nonaligned movement which it chaired from 1994 until september 1998  in addition it has signed free trade agreements with chile mexico and venezuela colombia has traditionally played an active role in the united nations and the organization of american states and in their subsidiary agencies  former president csar gaviria became secretary general of the oas in september 1994 and was reelected in 1999  colombia was a participant in the december 1994 and april 1998 summits of the americas and followed up on initiatives developed at the summit by hosting two postsummit ministeriallevel meetings on trade and science and technology colombia regularly participates in international fora including cicad the organization of american states body on money laundering chemical controls and drug abuse prevention  although the colombian government ratified the 1988 un convention on narcotics in 1994the last of the andean governments to do soit took important reservations notably to the antimoneylaundering measures asset forfeiture and confiscation provisions maritime interdiction and extradition clauses  colombia subsequently withdrew some of its reservations most notably a reservation on extradition maritime boundary dispute with venezuela in the gulf of venezuela territorial disputes with nicaragua over archipelago de san andrs y providencia and quita sueo bank the united states disputes sovereignty with colombia over the serranilla bank and the bajo nuevo bank quita sueo bank is claimed by the united states to be a submerged reef and thus does not recognize the sovereignty of any nation over the bank membership in international organizations the major organizations in which colombia is a member include the agency for the prohibition of nuclear weapons in latin america and the caribbean andean pact caribbean development bank economic commission for latin america and the caribbean food and agriculture organization of the united nations group of 3 group of 11 group of 24 group of 77 interamerican development bank international atomic energy agency international bank for reconstruction and development international chamber of commerce international civil aviation organization international criminal police organization international development association international finance corporation international fund for agricultural development international labour organization international maritime organization international maritime satellite organization international monetary fund imf international olympic committee international organization for migration international organization for standardization international telecommunication union international telecommunications satellite organization international trade union confederation latin american economic system latin american integration association latin union nonaligned movement organization of american states oas permanent court of arbitration rio group united nations un un conference on trade and development un educational scientific and cultural organization un industrial development organization un office of the high commissioner for refugees universal postal union world confederation of labour world federation of trade unions world health organization world intellectual property organization world meteorological organization world tourism organization and world trade organization an oas observer has monitored the governments peace process with the paramilitaries lending the negotiations muchneeded international credibility the united states helps colombia secure favorable treatment from the imf defense treaties to which colombia is a party include the interamerican treaty of reciprocal assistance of 1947 the rio treaty regional treaties include the andean pact now known as the andean community which also includes bolivia ecuador and peru the bodies and institutions making up the andean integration system ais colombia has signed freetrade agreements with chile mexico and venezuela the country has a strong bilateral trade agreement with venezuela the uribe administration strongly favors extending these bilateral trade agreements across the hemisphere  trade agreements include the agreement on trade economic and technical cooperation between the caribbean community and common market caricom and the government of the republic of colombia colombia has also signed and ratified 105 international treaties or agreements relating to the environment  these include the antarctic treaty and nuclear test ban treaty and conventions on biodiversity climate change desertification endangered species hazardous wastes marine life conservation ozone layer protection ship pollution tropical timber 83 tropical timber 94 and wetlands it has signed but not ratified the antarcticenvironmental protocol and conventions on law of the sea and marine dumping colombia also has signed the treaty on the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons and the tlatelolco treaty by 1975 signatories to the 1974 declaration of ayacucho of which colombia was one had decided on limitations to nuclear biological and chemical weapons colombia is also a member of the international criminal court with a bilateral immunity agreement of protection for the united statesmilitary as covered under article 98 presentday colombia and ecuador trace back established official diplomatic relations to december 1831 with the signing of the treaty of pasto in which both countries recognized each other as sovereign states the ecuadorean diplomatic mission in new granada colombia did not open until 1837  it wasnt until 1939 that ecuador raised the diplomatic missions status to an official embassy colombia did the same the following year in 1940 the relationship between the two latin american countries has evolved amid conflicts over the san andrs y providencia islands located in the caribbean sea close to the nicaraguan shoreline and the maritime boundaries covering convert150000 that included the islands of san andres providencia and santa catalina and the banks of roncador serrana serranilla and quitasueo as well as the arbitrarily designed 82nd meridian west which colombia claims as a border but which the international court has sided with nicaragua in disavowing the relationship has developed since the early 16th century when spanish empire colonizers created the province of santa marta now colombia and the province of new andalucia now venezuela the countries share a history for achieving their independence under simn bolvar and becoming one nationthe gran colombiawhich dissolved in the 19th century  following then the overall relationship between the two countries has vacillated between cooperation and bilateral struggle during the last fifty years different american governments and their representatives have become involved in colombian affairs through the implementation of policies concerned with the above issues some critics of current us policies in colombia such as law professor john barry consider that us influences have catalyzed internal conflicts and substantially expanded the scope and nature of human rights abuses in colombia supporters such as under secretary of state marc grossman consider that the us has promoted respect for human rights and the rule of law in colombia in addition to the fight against drugs and terrorism the country traditionally has had good relations with the united states relations were strained during the presidency of ernesto samper 199498 due to accusations of receiving illegal campaign funding from the cali cartel relations between the two countries greatly improved during the pastrana administration 19982002  in january 2000 the clinton administration pledged more than us1 billion of mainly military assistance to colombia to assist the antidrug component of president pastranas strategy known as plan colombia relations with the united states became a foreign policy priority for the uribe administration and president uribe is an important ally in george w bushs war on terrorism in march 2002 in response to a request from bush the us congress lifted restrictions on us assistance to colombia to allow it to be used for counterinsurgency in addition to antidrug operations  us support for colombias antidrugtrafficking efforts included slightly more than us25 billion between 2000 and 2004 as compared with only about us300 million in 1998  in addition to the challenge posed to the united states by colombian drug trafficking illegal colombian immigrants in the united states are an issue in uscolombian relations an estimated one million illegal colombian immigrants were in the united states by 1999  in early 2003 colombia ranked among the top seven countries in the world exporting illegal aliens to the united states under the uribe administration colombias relations with the european union eu have been cordial  representatives of the eu have been critical of colombias antiguerrilla and antidrug strategies in several respects the eu is particularly concerned about the potential for increased human rights abuses within colombia at the hands of both government forces and illegal armed groups and it has continued to distance itself from plan colombia the eu is in favor of a negotiated solution to the nations internal conflict  eu aid to colombia has mainly consisted of social economic and development investments in 2004 the eu as an entity did not offer unrestricted support for the uribe governments peace initiative with paramilitaries citing concerns over the possible lack of a credible and comprehensive peace strategy and its application but it did approve 2 million usd in aid for the process  individual eu members such sweden italy germany and the netherlands also provided limited support on their own httpwwwcipresearchfuhemespazyseguridaddocsdocumentoestrategico2uecolombiapdf officially the relations between colombian and france began on may 30 1892 with the signature of an agreement intended to establish french nationals in colombia increase commerce and navigation between the two nations colombia underwent a dispute with ireland over the return of three irish citizens known as the colombia three the men were first convicted due to their use of false passports and after an appeal by the prosecution of providing training to colombian guerrillas they escaped while on bail and the irish government and media are aware of their presence in ireland colombia recognized kosovo on august 6 2008 the replacement of spanish rightwing prime minister jos mara aznar by leftwing jos luis rodrguez zapatero in march 2004 prompted spain to distance itself ideologically and politically from the earlier support that aznar had offered to the colombian government while still maintaining cordial diplomatic relations full direct diplomatic relations were established in 1953 with the exchange of the first ambassadors  canada has an embassy in bogot colombia has an embassy in ottawa and 2 consulatesgeneral in montreal and toronto both countries are full members of the organization of american states the relationship between the two countries has been gradually increasing with more frequent diplomatic visits to promote political commercial cultural and academic exchanges  colombia is currently the commercial point of entry into latin america for indian companies in the mid 1950s both countries officially established diplomatic relations and set up embassies in bogot and tel aviv respectively  relations improved tremendously in 1988 when major trade agreements were signed between israel and colombia the relationship was officially established in 1908 only interrupted between 1942 and 1954 with the surge of world war ii relations are mostly based on commercial trade that has favored japan interests cultural exchanges and technological and philanthropic aid to colombia illicit producer of coca opium poppies and cannabis by the 1990s colombia had become the worlds leading supplier of refined cocaine and a growing source for heroin  more than 90 of the cocaine that entered in the 1990s the united states was produced processed or transshipped in colombia the cultivation of coca reduced  between 1995 and 1999 from 3020 to convert1100 primarily in areas where government control is more active despite the death of medelln cartel drug kingpin pablo escobar in 1993 and the arrests of major cali cartel leaders in 1995 and 1996 colombian drug cartels remain among the most sophisticated criminal organizations in the world controlling cocaine processing international wholesale distribution chains and markets  in 1999 colombian police arrested over 30 narcotraffickers most of them extraditable in operation millennium involving extensive international cooperation  more arrests were made in a following operation millennium ii colombia is engaged in a broad range of narcotics control activities  through aerial spraying of herbicide and manual eradication colombia has attempted to keep coca opium poppy and cannabis cultivation from expanding the government has committed itself to the eradication of all illicit crops interdiction of drug shipments and financial controls to prevent money laundering  alternative development programs were introduced in 1999 corruption and intimidation by traffickers complicate the drugcontrol efforts of the institutions of government  colombia passed revised criminal procedures code in 1993 that permits traffickers to surrender and negotiate lenient sentences in return for cooperating with prosecutors  in december 1996 and february 1997 however the colombian congress passed legislation to toughen sentencing asset forfeiture and moneylaundering penalties in november 1997 the colombian congress amended the constitution to permit the extradition of colombian nationals albeit not retroactively  in late 1999 president pastrana authorized the first extradition in almost 10 years of a colombian trafficker to stand trial for us crimes  three such extraditions to the united states have taken place the most recent in august 2000 with cases against others pending in colombian courts  under the pastrana administration plan colombia was  developed and implemented with us backing in 2005 the united nations office on drugs and crime estimated that some convert860 were under cultivation httpwwwunodcorgunodcenpressrelease20060620html 
continuummechanics modeling an object as a continuum assumes that the substance of the object completely fills the space it occupies  modeling objects in this way ignores the fact that matter is made of atoms and so is not continuous however on length scales much greater than that of interatomic distances such models are highly accurate  fundamental physical laws such as the conservation of mass the conservation of momentum and the conservation of energy may be applied to such models to derive differential equations describing the behavior of such objects and some information about the particular material studied is added through a constitutive relation continuum mechanics deals with physical properties of solids and fluids which are independent of any particular coordinate system in which they are observed  these physical properties are then represented by tensors which are mathematical objects that have the required property of being independent of coordinate system  these tensors can be expressed in coordinate systems for computational convenience materials such as solids liquids and gases are composed of molecules separated by empty space  on a macroscopic scale materials have cracks and discontinuities  however certain physical phenomena can be modeled assuming the materials exist as a continuum meaning the matter in the body is continuously distributed and fills the entire region of space it occupies a continuum is a body that can be continually subdivided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material the validity of the continuum assumption may be verified by a theoretical analysis in which either some clear periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and ergodicity of the microstructure exists  more specifically the continuum hypothesisassumption hinges on the concepts of a representative volume element rve sometimes called representative elementary volume and separation of scales based on the hillmandel condition  this condition provides a link between an experimentalists and a theoreticians viewpoint on constitutive equations linear and nonlinear elasticinelastic or coupled fields as well as a way of spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure when the separation of scales does not hold or when one wants to establish a continuum of a finer resolution than that of the rve size one employs a statistical volume element sve which in turn leads to random continuum fields the latter then provide a micromechanics basis for stochastic finite elements sfe the levels of sve and rve link continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics the rve may be assessed only in a limited way via experimental testing when the constitutive response becomes spatially homogeneous specifically for fluids the knudsen number is used to assess to what extent the approximation of continuity can be made continuum mechanics models begin by assigning a region in three dimensional euclidean space to the material body mathcal b being modeled the points within this region are called particles or material points  different configurations or states of the body correspond to different regions in euclidean space the region corresponding to the bodys configuration at time  t is labeled  kappatmathcal b a particular particle within the body in a particular configuration is characterized by a position vector  this function needs to have various properties so that the model makes physical sense kappatcdot needs to be for the mathematical formulation of the model  kappatcdot is also assumed to be twice continuously differentiable so that differential equations describing the motion may be formulated continuum mechanics deals with deformable bodies as opposed to rigid bodies a solid is a deformable body that possesses shear strength sc a solid can support shear forces forces parallel to the material surface on which they act  fluids on the other hand do not sustain shear forces  for the study of the mechanical behavior of solids and fluids these are assumed to be continuous bodies which means that the matter fills the entire region of space it occupies despite the fact that matter is made of atoms has voids and is discrete  therefore when continuum mechanics refers to a point or particle in a continuous body it does not describe a point in the interatomic space or an atomic particle rather an idealized part of the body occupying that point following the classical dynamics of newton and euler the motion of a material body is produced by the action of externally applied forces which are assumed to be of two kinds surface forces mathbf fc and body forces mathbf fb thus the total force mathcal f applied to a body or to a portion of the body can be expressed as the distribution of internal contact forces throughout the volume of the body is assumed to be continuous  therefore there exists a contact force density or cauchy traction field  any differential area ds with normal vector mathbf n of a given internal surface area s bounding a portion of the body experiences a contact force dmathbf fc arising from the contact between both portions of the body on each side of s and it is given by the total contact force on the particular internal surface s is then expressed as the sum surface integral of the contact forces on all differential surfaces ds in continuum mechanics a body is considered stressfree if the only forces present are those interatomic forces ionic metallic and van der waals forces required to hold the body together and to keep its shape in the absence of all external influences including gravitational attraction  stresses generated during manufacture of the body to a specific configuration are also excluded when considering stresses in a body  therefore the stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced by deformation of the body sc only relative changes in stress are considered not the absolute values of stress in the case of gravitational forces the intensity of the force depends on or is proportional to the mass density mathbf rho mathbf x t of the material and it is specified in terms of force per unit mass bi or per unit volume pi  these two specifications are related through the material density by the equation rho bi  pi  similarly the intensity of electromagnetic forces depends upon the strength electric charge of the electromagnetic field the total body force applied to a continuous body is expressed as body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead to corresponding moments of force torques relative to a given point  thus the total applied torque mathcal m about the origin is given by in certain situations not commonly considered in the analysis of the mechanical behavior or materials it becomes necessary to include two other types of forces these are body moments and couple stresses surface couples materials that exhibit body couples and couple stresses in addition to moments produced exclusively by forces are called polar materials thus the sum of all applied forces and torques with respect to the origin of the coordinate system in the body can be given by a change in the configuration of a continuum body results in a displacement the displacement of a body has two components a rigidbody displacement and a deformation a rigidbody displacement consist of a simultaneous translation and rotation of the body without changing its shape or size  deformation implies the change in shape andor size of the body from an initial or undeformed configuration  kappa0mathcal b to a current or deformed configuration  kappatmathcal b figure 2 the motion of a continuum body is a continuous time sequence of displacements  thus the material body will occupy different configurations at different times so that a particle occupies a series of points in space which describe a pathline there is continuity during deformation or motion of a continuum body in the sense that it is convenient to identify a reference configuration or initial condition which all subsequent configurations are referenced from the reference configuration need not be one that the body will ever occupy  often the configuration at  t0 is considered the reference configuration   kappa0 mathcal b the components  xi of the position vector  mathbf x of a particle taken with respect to the reference configuration are called the material or reference coordinates when analyzing the deformation or motion of solids or the flow of fluids it is necessary to describe the sequence or evolution of configurations throughout time  one description for motion is made in terms of the material or referential coordinates called material description or lagrangian description in the lagrangian description the position and physical properties of the particles are described in terms of the material or referential coordinates and time  in this case the reference configuration is the configuration at  t0 an observer standing in the referential frame of reference observes the changes in the position and physical properties as the material body moves in space as time progresses the results obtained are independent of the choice of initial time and reference configuration kappa0mathcal b this description is normally used in solid mechanics ie thermodynamic properties and velocity which describe or characterize features of the material body are expressed as continuous functions of position and time iemathbf xt of a continuum which may be a scalar vector or tensor is the time rate of change of that property for a specific group of particles of the moving continuum body the material derivative is also known as the substantial derivative or comoving derivative or convective derivative it can be thought as the rate at which the property changes when measured by an observer traveling with that group of particles is simply the partial derivative with respect to time and the position vector  mathbf x is held constant as it does not change with time  thus we have the instantaneous position  mathbf x is a property of a particle and its material derivative is the instantaneous velocity  mathbf v of the particle  therefore the velocity field of the continuum is given by similarly the acceleration field is given by continuity in the lagrangian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity of the mapping from the reference configuration to the current configuration of the material points  all physical quantities characterizing the continuum are described this waycdot are singlevalued and continuous with continuous derivatives with respect to space and time to whatever order is required usually to the second or third continuity allows for the inverse of chicdot to trace backwards where the particle currently located at mathbf x was located in the initial or referenced configuration kappa0mathcal b in this case the description of motion is made in terms of the spatial coordinates in which case is called the spatial description or eulerian description ie the current configuration is taken as the reference configuration the eulerian description introduced by dalembert focuses on the current configuration kappatmathcal b giving attention to what is occurring at a fixed point in space as time progresses instead of giving attention to individual particles as they move through space and time  this approach is conveniently applied in the study of fluid flow where the kinematic property of greatest interest is the rate at which change is taking place rather than the shape of the body of fluid at a reference time mathematically the motion of a continuum using the eulerian description is expressed by the mapping function a necessary and sufficient condition for this inverse function to exist is that the determinant of the jacobian matrix often referred to simply as the jacobian should be different from zeromathbf xt occurring at position  mathbf x the second term of the righthand side is the convective rate of change and expresses the contribution of the particle changing position in space motion continuity in the eulerian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity and continuous differentiability of the velocity field  all physical quantities are defined this way at each instant of time in the current configuration as a function of the vector position  mathbf x the vector joining the positions of a particle  p in the undeformed configuration and deformed configuration is called the displacement vector  mathbf umathbf xtuimathbf ei in the lagrangian description or  mathbf umathbf xtujmathbf ej in the eulerian description a displacement field is a vector field of all displacement vectors for all particles in the body which relates the deformed configuration with the undeformed configuration it is convenient to do the analysis of deformation or motion of a continuum body in terms of the displacement field  in general the displacement field is expressed in terms of the material coordinates as knowing that it is common to superimpose the coordinate systems for the undeformed and deformed configurations which results in  mathbf b0  and the direction cosines become kronecker deltas ie thus we have pipf continuum mechanics deals with the behavior of materials that can be approximated as continuous for certain length and time scales the equations that govern the mechanics of such materials include the balance laws for mass momentum and energy   kinematic relations and constitutive equations are needed to complete the system of governing equations   physical restrictions on the form of the constitutive relations can be applied by requiring that the second law of thermodynamics be satisfied under all conditions   in the continuum mechanics of solids the second law of thermodynamics is satisfied if the clausiusduhem form of the entropy inequality is satisfied the balance laws express the idea that the rate of change of a quantity mass momentum energy in a volume must arise from three causes let omega be the body an open subset of euclidean space and let   partial omega  be its surface the boundary of omegat be a physical quantity that is flowing through the bodyt be sources inside the bodyt be the outward unit normal to the surface partial omega t be the velocity of the physical particles that carry the physical quantity that is flowingt can be scalar valued vector valued or tensor valued  depending on the physical quantity that the balance equation deals with if there are internal boundaries in the body jump discontinuities also need to be specified in the balance lawst is an energy source per unit mass is the first piolakirchhoff stress tensor and   rho0 is the mass density in the reference configuration which is the transpose of the first piolakirchhoff stress tensor such that then the balance laws become the operators in the above equations are defined as such that the inner product is defined as the clausiusduhem inequality can be used to express the second law of thermodynamics for elasticplastic materials   this inequality is a statement concerning the irreversibility of natural processes especially when energy dissipation is involved just like in the balance laws in the previous section we assume that there is a flux of a quantity a source of the quantity and an internal density of the quantity per unit mass the quantity of interest in this case is the entropy   thus we assume that there is an entropy flux an entropy source and an internal entropy density per unit mass eta in the region of interest let omega be such a region and let partial omega  be its boundary   then the second law of thermodynamics states that the rate of increase of  eta in this region is greater than or equal to the sum of that supplied to omega as a flux or from internal sources and the change of the internal entropy density due to material flowing in and out of the region be the unit outward normal to the surface partial omega  be the entropy flux at the surface and r be the entropy source per unit mass   under the assumption  of incrementally isothermal conditions we have we then have the clausiusduhem inequality in integral form we can show that the entropy inequality may be written in differential form as in terms of the cauchy stress and the internal energy the clausiusduhem inequality may be written as 
historyofcomoros it is thought that the comoros islands were first visited by phoenician sailors the earliest inhabitants of the islands may have been 5th or 6th century melanesian or polynesian sailors a 6th century settlement the most notable of these early immigrants were the shirazi arab royal clans who arrived in comoros in the 15th and 16th centuries and stayed to build mosques create a royal house and introduce architecture and carpentry over the centuries the comoro islands were settled by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of africa the persian gulf indonesia and madagascar portuguese explorers visited the archipelago in 1505 in 1529 the french parmentier brothers came but the first reliable european accounts of this part of the world came from the portuguese explorers diogo dias and fernando soares the portuguese failed to capitalise on being the first europeans to reach the islands and for the next century or two the islands were used only on voyages up and down the coast of east africa in fact up until the middle of the 19th century it was not european explorers but pirates from madagascar who had the largest impact  during this time the fragmentation of power led to the creation of many statelets each controlled by a sultan and at one stage there were no fewer than 12 sultans on the island of grande comore alone the french turned their attention to the comoros islands in the middle of the 19th century the french finally acquired the islands through a cunning mixture of strategies including the policy of divide and conquer chequebook politics and a serendipitous affair between a sultana and a french trader that was put to good use by the french who kept control of the islands quelling unrest and the occasional uprising the comoro islands struggle against dependency in the indian ocean  page 34 until he died in 1877 william sunley was to be the dominant influence on anjouan and on 25 march 1841 france annexed the mawuti maore sultanate the name of the island was corrupted in french to mayotte as mayotte protectorate ratified 13 june 1843   in 1852 andruna is added to mayotte protectorate and in 1866 the large sultanate ndzuwani on anjouan island as well on 24 june 1886 the islands of ngazidja grande comore in french comprised eleven sultanates but in 1886 the sultan tibe paramount ruler and sultan of bambao unified them ndzuwani anjouan and mwali sultanate mohli island in french become french protectorates french rsidents are posted on the three islands on 5 september 1887 they are collectively renamed protectorate of the comoros on 9 april 1908 france declared the comoros a dependent territory of its madagascar colony on 25 july 1912 it was annexed by france and joined with mayotte as mayotte and dependencies after the ratification on 23 february 1914 subordinated to the governor general of madagascar comoros dependent colony from 16 june 1940  1942 the colonial administration remained loyal to vichy france from 1942 under free french but 25 september 1942  13 october 1946 they were like madagascar under british occupation until the opening of the suez canal the islands used to be an important refuelling and provisioning station for ships from europe to the indian ocean independence came gradually for comoros during the middle of the 20th century the french reluctantly began to accede to reasonable requests and by 1947 comoros had become a separately administered colony from madagascar after world war ii the islands became a french overseas territory and were represented in frances national assembly  internal political autonomy was granted in 1961   agreement was reached with france in 1973 for comoros to become independent in 1978   on july 6 1975 however the comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence the deputies of mayotte abstained in two referendums in december 1974 and february 1976 the population of mayotte voted against independence from france by 638 and 994 respectively   mayotte thus remains under french administration and the comorian government has effective control over only grande comore anjouan and mohli in 1961 it was granted autonomous rule and seven years after the general unrest and leftwing riots of 1968  comoros broke all ties with france and established itself as an independent republic  from the very beginning mayotte refused to join the new republic and aligned itself even more firmly to the french republic but the other islands remained committed to independence the first president of comoros ahmed abdallah abderemane did not last long before being ousted in a coup by ali soilih an atheist with an islamic background soilih began with a set of solid socialist ideals designed to modernize the country  however the regime faced problems a french mercenary by the name of bob denard arrived in comoros at dawn on 13 may 1978 and removed soilih from power  solih was shot and killed during the coup  abdallah returned to govern the country and the mercenaries were given key positions in government later french settlers frenchowned companies and arab merchants established a plantationbased economy that now uses about onethird of the land for export crops in 1978 president ali soilih who had a firm antifrench line was killed and ahmed abdallah came to power  under the reign of abdallah denard was commander of the presidential guard pg and de facto ruler of the country he was trained supported and funded by the white regimes in south africa sa and rhodesia now zimbabwe in return for permission to set up a secret listening post on the islands  southafrican agents kept an ear on the important anc bases in lusaka and dar es salaam watched the war in mozambique in which sa played an active role the comoros were also used for the evasion of arms sanctions when in 1981 franois mitterrand was elected president denard lost the support of the french intelligence service but he managed to strengthen the link between sa and the comoros besides the military denard established his own company sogecom for both the security and construction and seemed to profit by the arrangement   between 1985 an 1987 the relationship of the pg with the local comorians became worse at the end of the 1980s the south africans did not wish to continue to support the mercenary regime and france was in agreement  also president abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave  their response was a third coup resulting in the death of president abdallah in which denard and his men were probably involved  south africa and the french government subsequently forced denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989 said mohamed djohar became president  his time in office was turbulent including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992 on september 28 1995 bob denard and a group of mercenaries took over the comoros islands in a coup named operation kaskari by the mercenaries against president djohar france immediately severely denounced the coup and backed by the 1978 defense agreement with the comoros president jacques chirac ordered his special forces to retake the island  bob denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion a new presidential guard was created  strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island particularly around the islands two airports on october 3 1995 11 pm the french deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300 man dissident force  denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight  within 7 hours the airports at iconi and hahaya and the french embassy in moroni were secured  by 300 pm the next day bob denard and his mercenaries had surrendered  this response operation codenamed azale was remarkable because there were no casualties and just in seven days plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed  denard was taken to france and jailed  prime minister caambi elyachourtu became acting president until djohar returned from exile in january 1996  in march 1996 following presidential elections mohamed taki abdoulkarim a member of the civilian government that denard had tried to set up in october 1995 became president in 1997 the islands of anjouan and mohli declared their independence from comoros a subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed and presently the african union is brokering negotiations to effect a reconciliation  this process is largely complete at least in theory  according to some sources mohli did return to government control in 1998  in 1999 anjouan had internal conflicts and on august 1 of that year the 80yearold first president foundi abdallah ibrahim resigned transferring power to a national coordinator said abeid the government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on august 9 2001  mohamed bacar soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country  despite two coup attempts in the following three months including one by abeid bacars government remained in power and was apparently more willing to negotiate with comoros presidential elections were held for all of comoros in 2002 and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well which have become a confederation  most notably mohammed bacar was elected for a 5year term as president of anjouan grande comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s when president taki died on november 6 1998  colonel azali assoumani became president following a military coup in 1999  there have been several coup attempts since but he gained firm control of the country after stepping down temporarily and winning a presidential election in 2002 in may 2006 ahmed abdallah sambi was elected from the island of anjouan to be the president of the union of comoros he is a wellrespected sunni cleric who studied in the sudan iran and saudi arabia he is respectfully called ayatollah by his supporters but is considered and is a moderate islamist he has been quoted as stating that comoros is not ready to become an islamic state nor shall the veil be forced upon any women in the comoros see httpenwikipediaorgwikiwikipediafootnotes for a 
craps craps developed from a simplification of the old english game hazard  its origins are complex and may date to the crusades later being influenced by french gamblers   what was to become the modern american version of the game was brought to new orleans by bernard xavier philippe de marigny de mandeville scion of wealthy louisiana landowners a gambler and politician  there was a flaw in bernards version of the game in which players could exploit the casino using fixed dice and taking advantage of the way players can bet with or against the dice thrower a man named john h winn introduced the dont pass betting option in order to fix this problem and it is this version of craps that still exists today the game first known as crapaud a french word meaning toad in reference to the original style of play by people crouched over a floor or sidewalk reportedly owes its modern popularity to street craps being spread through the africanamerican community  street craps may be played by rolling the dice against a backstop such as a curb or stairstoop or without a backstop at the choice of the players during world war ii streetstyle craps became popular among soldiers who often played it using an army blanket as a shooting surface  with no backboard or sidewalk curb to hit against this gave rise to presumed methods of dice control of which the best was known as the army blanket roll in the modern african american community the game of street craps is generally called shooting dice and is played on the floor or on a sidewalk often without a backstop  among black players the name craps refers primarily to the casino version of the game that is played on a marked felt surface on a table new york gov patersons son alex paterson taken into police custody for allegedly shooting dice jan 13 2010 paterson son nabbed and later released by larry celona jamie schran and murray weiss gov patersons teenage son was picked up today after cops caught him shooting dice on an upper west side street corner bank craps is a game played by multiple players betting against a casino  each casino might set slightly different payouts for the various bets  players take turns rolling two dice and whoever is throwing the dice is called the shooter  players can bet on the various options by placing chips in the appropriate sections of the board it may be required to ask the dealer to place certain bets while acting as the shooter a player must have a bet on the pass line or the dont pass line  pass and dont pass are sometimes called win or right and dont win or wrong bets the game is played in rounds and these pass and dont pass bets are betting on the outcome of a round the shooter is often replaced at the end of the round or when they lose a round with a seven the dice are moved clockwise around the table for the next player to become shooter the shooter is presented with multiple dice typically five by the stickman and must choose two for the round the remaining dice are returned to the stickmans bowl and are not used each round has two phases comeout and point   to start a round the shooter makes one or more comeout rolls a comeout roll of 2 3 or 12 loses and is called craps  anyone betting on the pass line loses in this situation a comeout roll of 7 or 11 a natural wins and results in a payout for pass line bets the other possible numbers are the point numbers 4 5 6 8 9 and 10  if the shooter rolls one of these numbers on the comeout roll this establishes the point  the number that must be rolled again before a seven the dealer flips a button to the on side and moves it to the point number signifying the second phase of the round if the shooter rolls a seven before repeating the point number a sevenout the pass line loses and the round ends a player wishing to play craps without being the shooter should approach the craps table and first check to see if the dealers on button is on any of the point numbers if the button has been turned to off then the table is in the comeout round if the dealers button is on the table is in the point round where most casinos will allow a pass line bet to be placed but the player should check with the dealer   all single or multi roll proposition bets may be placed in either of the two rounds   between dice rolls there is a period for dealers to make payouts and collect losing bets after which players can place new bets the stickman monitors the action at a table and decides when to give the shooter the dice after which no more betting is allowed in a casino players make bets with chips on a specially made craps table with a table cloth made of felt that displays the various betting possibilities   in most casinos craps tables are double sided the layouts on both ends of the table are identical with the center bets in the middle   this allows more players to participate   players can make multiple bets for each turn round or roll and should become familiar with the craps layout a casino craps table is run by up to four casino employees a boxman who guards the chips supervises the dealers and handles coloring out players exchanging small chip denominations for larger denominations in order to preserve the chips at a table two base dealers who stand to either side of the boxman and collect and pay bets and a stickman who stands directly across the table from the boxman takes bets in the center of the table hard ways yo craps horn etc announces the results of each roll collects the dice with an elongated wooden stick and directs the base dealers to pay winners from bets in the center of the table  each employee makes sure the other is paying out winners correctly  occasionally during offpeak times only one base dealer will be attending the table rendering only half the table open for bettors or one of the two base dealers will assume the role of the stickman  in some casinos there is no boxman the boxmans duties are shared between the dealers and a roving supervisor who covers many tables in the game of shooting dice there is no marked table and often the game is played with no backstop against which the dice are to hit  despite the name street craps this game is often played in houses usually on an uncarpeted garage or kitchen floor the wagers are made in cash never in chips and are usually thrown down onto the ground by the players  there are no attendants and so the progress of the game fairness of the throws and the way that the payouts are made for winning bets are selfpoliced by the players the dealers will insist that the shooter roll with one hand and that the dice bounce off the far wall surrounding the table  these requirements are meant to keep the game fair preventing switching the dice or making a controlled shot if a die leaves the table the shooter will usually be asked to select another die from the remaining three but can request using the same die if it passes the boxmans inspection  this requirement is used to keep the game fair and reduce the chance of loaded dice nicknaming the rolls makes the game more interesting  locals often have their own names rolls of 4 6 8 and 10 are called hard or easy eg  six the hard way easy eight hard ten depending on whether they were rolled as a double or as any other combination of values because of their significance in center table bets known as the hard ways the shooter is required to make either a pass line bet or a dont pass bet if he wants to shoot some casinos require all players to make a minimum pass or dont pass bet whether they are currently shooting or not  line bets are based on points the fundamental bet in craps is the pass line bet which is a bet for the shooter to win their point number a pass line bet is won immediately if the comeout roll is a 7 or 11  if the comeout roll is 2 3 or 12 the bet loses known as crapping out if the roll is any other value it establishes a point if that point is rolled again before a seven the bet wins  if with a point established a seven is rolled before the point is rerolled the bet loses seven out a pass line win pays even money a dont pass line bet is a bet for the shooter to not make their point number shooter seven out line away and is almost the opposite of the pass line bet the dont pass bet is opposite in that it loses if the comeout roll is 7 or 11 and wins if the comeout roll is 2 or 3  a 12 will draw this depends on the casino in some places a 12 will win and a 2 will draw either way a player cannot lose if 12 is rolled a draw meaning a tie the word bar printed on the craps layout means standoff it results in a tie on 12 is done to ensure the casino maintains a house edge regardless of whether players are betting pass or dont pass if a point is established and that point is rolled again the dont pass bet loses if a 7 is rolled instead of the point being rerolled the dont pass bet wins  there are two very slightly different ways to calculate the odds and house edge of this bet the table below gives the numbers considering that the game ends in a push when a 12 is rolled rather than being undetermined  betting on dont pass is often called playing the dark side and it is considered by some players to be in poor taste or even taboo because it goes directly against conventional play if a 4 5 6 8 9 or 10 is thrown on the comeout roll ie if a point is set most casinos allow pass line bettors to take odds by placing from one to five times and at some casinos up to 100 times the pass line bet behind the pass line   this additional bet wins if the point is rolled again before a 7 is rolled the point is made and pays at the true odds of 2to1 if 4 or 10 is the point 3to2 if 5 or 9 is the point and 6to5 if 6 or 8 is the point some casinos offer 345x odds where the maximum allowed odds bet depends on the point three times if the point is 4 or 10 four times on 5 or 9 and five times on 6 or 8  this rule simplifies the calculation of winnings a maximum pass odds bet on a 345x table will always be paid at six times the pass line bet regardless of the point as odds bets are paid at true odds in contrast with the pass line which is always even money playing pass odds on a minimum pass line bet lessens the house advantage a maximum odds bet on a minimum pass line bet often gives the lowest house edge available in the casino  however the odds bet cannot be made independently so the house retains an edge on the pass line bet itself if a player is playing dont pass instead of pass they may also lay odds by placing chips behind the dont pass line if a 7 comes instead of the point coming the odds pay at true odds of 1to2 if 4 or 10 is the point 2to3 if 5 or 9 is the point 5to6 if 6 or 8 is the point a come bet is played in two rounds and is played similar to a pass line bet the main difference is that a player making a come bet will bet on the first point number that comes from the shooters next roll regardless of the tables round if a 7 or 11 is rolled on the first round it wins if a 2 3 or 12 is rolled it loses if instead the roll is 4 5 6 8 9 10 then the come bet will be moved by the base dealer onto a box representing the number the shooter threw   this number becomes the come bet point and the player is allowed to add odds to the bet the dealer will place the odds on top of the come bet but slightly off center in order to differentiate between the original bet and the odds the second round wins if the shooter rolls the come bet before a seven if the seven comes before the number the comebet the bet loses   on a comeout roll for the pass line the come bet is in play but traditionally the odds are not working unless the player indicates otherwise to the dealer come wagers can only be made after a point has been established  on a come out roll the come bet is placed on the pass line as they are an identical bet because of the come bet if the shooter makes their point a player can find themselves in the situation where they have a come bet possibly with odds on it and the next roll is a comeout roll  in this situation odds bets on the come wagers are presumed to be not working for the comeout roll  that means that if the shooter rolls a 7 on the comeout roll any players with active come bets waiting for a comepoint lose their initial wager but will have their odds money returned to them if the comepoint is rolled the odds do not win but the come bet does and the odds are returned the player can tell the dealer that they want their odds working such that if the shooter rolls a number that matches the come point the odds bet will win along with the come bet and if a seven is rolled both lose a dont come bet is played in two rounds if a 2 or 3 is rolled in the first round it wins if a 7 or 11 is rolled it loses if a 12 is rolled it is a standoff and the player has the option to revoke their bet if instead the roll is 4 5 6 8 9 10 then the dont come bet will be moved by the base dealer onto a box representing the number the shooter threw the second round wins if the shooter rolls a seven before the dont come point dont come wagers can only be made after the comeout roll when a point has already been established   odds can also be placed on a dont comebet just like a pass line bet in this case the dealer not the player places the odds bet on top of the bet in the box because of limited space slightly offset to signify that it is an odds bet and not part of the original dont come bet singleroll  bets or proposition bets are resolved in one dice roll by the shooter  most of these are called service bets and they are located at the center of most craps tables  only the stickman or a dealer can place a service bet the bets include the field bet is a selfservice bet unlike the other proposition bets which are handled by the dealers or stickman the field bet is placed directly by the player  players identify their field bets by placing them in the field area directly in front of them or as close to their position as possible the initial bet andor any payouts can ride through several rolls until they lose and are assumed to be riding by dealers it is thus the players responsibility to collect their bet andor winnings immediately upon payout before the next dice roll if they do not wish to let it ride these are bets that may not be settled on the first roll and may need any number of subsequent rolls before an outcome is determined most multiroll bets may fall into the situation where a point is made by the shooter before the outcome of the multi roll bet is decided  these bets are considered not working in the new comeout roll until the next point is established unless the player calls the bet as working  casino rules vary on this some of these bets may not be callable while others may be considered working during the comeout if a nonworking point number placed bought or laid becomes the new point as the result of a comeout the bet is usually refunded or can be moved to another number for free players can place or buy any point number 4 5 6 8 9 10 by placing their wager in the come area and telling the dealer how much and on what numbers 30 on the 6 5 on the 5 or 25 buy the 10  both place and buy bets are bets that the number bet on will be rolled before a 7 is rolled  these bets are considered working bets and will continue to be paid out each time a shooter rolls the place or buy point number  by rules place bets are not working on the come out roll but can be turned on by the player place bets are paid at odds slightly worse than the true odds the place bets on the outside numbers 45910 should be made in units of 5 on a 5 minimum table in order to receive the correct exact payout of 5 paying 7 or 5 paying 9  the place bets on the 6  8 should be made in units of 6 on a 5 minimum table in order to receive the correct exact payout of 6 paying 7 buy bets are paid at true odds but a 5 commission is charged on the amount of the bet  traditionally the buy bet commission is paid no matter what but in recent years a number of casinos have changed their policy to charge the commission only when the buy bet wins some casinos charge the commission as a onetime fee to buy the number payouts are then always at true odds  most casinos usually charge only 1 for a 25 greenchip bet 4 commission or 2 for 50 two green chips reducing the house advantage a bit more  where commission is charged only on wins the commission is often deducted from the winning payoffa winning 25 buy bet on the 10 would pay 49 for instance the house edges stated in the table assume the commission is charged on all bets they are reduced by at least a factor of two if commission is charged on winning bets only  rarely casinos offer the place bet to lose  this bet is the opposite of the place bet and wins if a 7 is rolled before the specific point number the place bet to lose typically carries a lower house edge than a place bet a lay bet is the opposite of a buy bet where a player bets on a 7 to roll before the number that is laid  just like the buy bet lay bets pay true odds but because the lay bet is the opposite of the buy bet the payout is reversed  therefore players get 1 to 2 for the numbers 4 and 10 2 to 3 for the numbers 5 and 9 and 5 to 6 for the numbers 6 and 8  a 5 commission vigorish vig juice is charged up front on the possible winning amount  for example  a 40 lay bet on the 4 would pay 20 on a win the 5 vig would be 1 based on the 20 win  not 2 based on the 40 bet as the way buy bet commissions are figured like the buy bet the commission is adjusted to suit the betting unit such that fraction of a dollar payouts are not needed the probability of dice combinations determine the odds of the payout the following chart shows the dice combinations needed to roll each number the two and twelve are the hardest to roll since only one combination of dice is possible the game of craps is built around the dice roll of seven since it is the most easily rolled dice combination the expected value of all bets is negative such that the average player will always lose money  this is because the house always sets the paid odds to below the actual odds the only exception is the odds bet that the player is allowed to make after a point is established on a passcome dont passdont come bet the odds portion of the bet has a longterm expected value of 0  however the free odds bet cannot be made independently so the expected value of the entire bet including odds is still negative   since there is no correlation between die rolls there is no possible longterm winning strategy in craps maximizing the size of the odds bet in relation to the line bet will reduce but never eliminate the house edge and will increase variance   many casinos have a limit on how large the odds bet can be in relation to the flat bet with single double and five times odds common some casinos offer 345 odds referring to the maximum multiple of the line bet a player can place in odds for the points of 4 and 10 5 and 9 and 6 and 8 respectively   during promotional periods a casino may even offer 100x odds bets which reduces the house edge to almost nothing but dramatically increases variance as the player will be betting in large betting units since several of the multiple roll bets pay off in ratios of fractions on the dollar it is important that the player bets in multiples that will allow a correct payoff in complete dollars  normally payoffs will be rounded down to the nearest dollar resulting in a higher house advantage  these bets include all place bets taking odds and buying on numbers 6 8 5 and 9 as well as laying all numbers these variants depend on the casino and the table and sometimes a casino will have different tables that use or omit these variants and others since all bets have a house advantage and a negative expected value the optimal strategy is to be the house  failing that one can reduce ones average losses by only placing bets with the smallest house advantage the passdont line comedont line place 6 place 8 buy 4 and buy 10 only under the casino rules where commission is charged only on wins are the best bets with the lowest house edge in the casino and all other bets will on average lose money between three and twelve times faster because of the difference in house edges the place bets and buy bets differ from the passdont line and comedont line in that place bets and buy bets can be removed at any time since they are onetime propositions whereas passdont line bets and comedont line bets must be resolved as win or lose once placed among these and the remaining numbers and possible bets there are a myriad of systems and progressions that can be used with many combinations of numbers an important alternative metric is house advantage per roll rather than per bet which may be expressed in loss per hour the typical pace of rolls varies depending on the number of players but 102 rolls per hour is a cited rate for a nearly full table besides the rules of the actual game certain unwritten rules of etiquette exist while playing craps and are expected to be followed  many consider these guidelines as important as the actual rules themselves  new players should familiarize themselves with them before approaching a craps table players are not supposed to handle the dice with more than one hand such as shaking them in cupped hands before rolling nor take the dice past the edge of the table the only way to change hands when throwing dice if permitted at all is to set the dice on the table let go then take them with the other hand  this reduces or eliminates the possibility of the shooter switching dice by sleightofhand when throwing the dice the player is expected to hit the farthest wall at the opposite end of the table some casinos refer to throws that do not hit the opposite wall as mellenberg rolls most casinos will allow a roll that does not hit the opposite wall as long as the dice are thrown past the middle of the table  occasionally a short roll will be called a no roll due to the more controllable nature of such a roll the dice may not be slid across the table and must be tossed  typically players are asked not to throw the dice higher than the eye level of the dealers dice are considered in play if they land on players bets on the table the dealers working stacks on the marker puck or with one die resting on top of the other the roll is invalid if either or both dice land in the boxmans bank the stickmans bowl where the extra three dice are kept between rolls or in the rails around the top of the table where players chips are kept if a die or both dice leave the table it is also a no roll and the boxman will examine the dice before letting it come back into the game  however the player may request the same die or dice when either of the dice land on or come to rest leaning against chips markers or the side of the table the number that would be on top if the object the die is leaning on were removed is the number that is used to make the call if one or both dice hits a player or dealer and rolls back onto the table the roll counts as long as the person being hit did not interfere with either of the dice though some casinos will rule no roll for this situation in most casinos the shooter may set the dice to a particular starting configuration before throwing such as showing a particular number or combination stacking the dice or spacing them to be picked up between different fingers but if they do they are often asked to be quick about it so as not to delay the game some casinos have no setting rules dealers are not allowed to touch the players or hand chips directly to a player and vice versa if buying in paying cash for chips at the table players are expected to lay the cash down on the layout which the dealer will take and then place chips in front of the player some crap table layouts state no call bets a call bet is made when a player is allowed to make a bet without first placing the necessary chips in the right spot on the table  this might occur while a player is waiting for a marker casino credit to arrive or after the dice have left the center of the table after which time the players must usually remove their hands from the playing surface the casino may ask a player to leave the table or the casino for any reason it is generally preferable to place chips on the board rather than tossing them  tossed chips may roll on edge out of the dealers reach andor upset other stacks of chips a center bet controlled by the stickman usually the hardest person to reach can be made by passing chips to the nearest dealer who will relay the bet to the stickman  when chips must be tossed it is polite to gain the dealer or stickmans attention and toss as few chips as necessary to cover the bet a 25 chip is preferable to a stack of five 5 chips when offered the dice to shoot a player may pass the dice to the next player without fear of offending anyone however at least one player must always be a shooter betting on either the pass line or dont pass line for the game to continue when tipping the most common way is simply to toss chips onto the table and say for the dealers or for the boys the second is considered acceptable even though dealers often are women  its also common to place a bet for the dealers if the bet is one handled by the dealers such as a place bet or one of the proposition bets handled by the stickman the chips should be placed or thrown and announced as a dealer bet such as dealers hard eight or place the eight for the dealers a twoway bet is one that is part for the player and part for the dealers  usually the dealers bet is smaller than the players bet but it is appreciated the part of the bet for the dealer is called a toke bet this is from the 1 slot machine coins or tokens that are sometimes used to place bets for the dealers in a casino  most casinos require the dealers to pick up their winning bets including the original tip rather than let it ride as the player may choose to do if the player wants the original dealer bet to remain in place the phrase i control the bet should be clearly stated by the tipper and acknowledged by the one of the crew immediately upon announcing the dealer bet  this indicates that any winnings for that bet will be picked up by the dealers and the original amount will remain in play until cleared by a loss or retracted by the player after a win such as a singleroll bet that would normally be returned to the player with their winnings the 1 yo eleven bet split with the dealers on comeout rolls by calling out twoway yo tends to be a favorite with many players as means of tipping the dealers without giving up too much per gambling trip if eleven comes out on the come out roll the pass line win bets and the more substantial yo bet splits see httpwizardofoddscomaskthewizard190 see reference after the comeout roll it is considered bad luck to say the word seven a common nickname for this number is big red or just red it is considered bad luck to change dice in the middle of a roll if one or both dice leave the table during a roll and the shooter does not want a new die or dice substituted into the game the shooter should immediately and clearly call same dice the retrieved die or dice will then be returned to play after close inspection by the boxman  to speed play most casinos will immediately begin the process of introducing new dice unless the shooter has requested otherwise though some casinos will inspect and return the dice by default proposition bets the bets in the center of the table are made by tossing chips to the center of the table and calling out the intended bet the stickman will then place the chips correctly for the player  as mentioned above care should be taken when tossing chips  players furthest from the stickman can often elect to place a center bet with a dealer who will relay the bet to the center it is considered rude to late bet or make wagers while the dice are no longer in the middle of the table  while entirely permissible excessive late betting will generally garner a warning as it slows play  at the discretion of the boxman or a pit boss dealers can disallow a bet made after the dice have left the center food drinks cigarettes and other items should remain off the chip rail and should not be held over the table players feel it is bad luck for the shooter to leave the table after a successful comeout roll a shooter retains the right to roll and is expected to continue rolling until he or she sevens out if the shooter leaves the game before a decision is reached on a point number the dice will be passed to the next player to continue where the shooter left off  once a decision is reached the substitute shooter can at the discretion of the boxman continue to roll the dice for a new come out as would have been the case had the previous shooter completed their roll when the shooter is ready to roll players should remove their hands from the table area in order to avoid interfering with the dice the stickman will often say hands high let em fly or dice are out hands high when making bets in the field or on the big 6 or big 8 it is the players responsibility to track his or her bet   place bets and come line bets will be tracked by the dealer who will pay the player directly   hardway and other proposition bets are tracked by the stickman and will be paid by the dealer to the player directly based on instructions from the stickman the phrase barber pole is derisive jargon in craps and refers to the commingling of gaming cheques of different denominations  wagers that combine different denominations are supposed to be stacked with the highest denomination at the bottom  no wagering system can consistently beat casino games of pure chance such as craps but that does not stop hopeful gamblers believing in them  one of the best known systems is the martingale system in which the player starts by betting a given amount for instance 1 and doubles his bet whenever he loses  upon winning he starts over at the initial amount the idea is to realize a net win equal to the initial amount after every eventual win   this system fails because the player will either run out of money after having to double his bet several times in a row after a streak of losing bets or he will be unable to bet the amount dictated by the system because it would exceed the maximum bet allowed by the casino the martingale system also only yields a profit equal to the initial bet amount every time the player wins if the initial amount is small the payout from each martingale sequence will be just as small other systems depend on the gamblers fallacy which in craps terms is the belief that past dice rolls influence the probabilities of future dice rolls  for example the gamblers fallacy indicates that a craps player should bet on eleven if an eleven has not appeared or has appeared too often in the last 20 rolls in reality each roll of the dice is an independent event so the probability of rolling an eleven is exactly 118 on every roll even if eleven has not come up in the last 100 rolls or if eleven has come up five times in the last five rolls  even if the dice are actually biased toward particular results loaded each roll is still independent of all of the previous ones the common term to describe this is dice have no memory the parity hedge system is a hoax promulgated by quatloos despite the fact that no such system exists indeed it is a mathematical impossibility several gamblingrelated web sites have retold the parity hedge story without attribution another approach is to set the dice in a particular orientation and then throw them in such a manner that they do not tumble randomly the theory is that the dice given the same throw from the same starting configuration will tumble in the same way and therefore show the same or similar values every time   unlike other systems this one is mathematically plausible because if it were possible to alter the probabilities of each outcome then winning systems could be devised casinos do take steps to prevent this the dice are usually required to hit the back wall of the table which is normally faced with a angular texture such as diamonds making controlled spins more difficult  whether it is possible for human beings to consistently exercise the precise physical control necessitated by the theory is a source of controversy a small but dedicated community of controlled shooters maintain records and claim proof of dice influencing in casino conditions  frank scoblete stanford wong and jerry l patterson authors of books that feature dice control techniques believe that it is possible to alter the odds in the players favor by dice control chris pawlicki a mechanical engineer who under the pseudonym sharpshooter wrote a book on dice setting called get the edge at craps how to control the dice as a part of the frank scoblete get the edge guides defined the math and science behind dice control in addition some people offer to teach dicesetting skills for a substantial fee   currently there has been no independent conclusive evidence that such methods can be successfully applied in a real casino bank craps is a variation of the original craps game and is sometimes known as las vegas craps this variant is quite popular in nevada gambling houses however its availability online has now made it a globally played game  bank craps uses a special table layout and all bets must be made against the house  in bank craps the dice are thrown over a wire or a string that is normally stretched a few inches from the tables surface the overall house edge in this variation is around 14 crapless craps also known as bastard craps is a simple version of the original craps game and is normally played as an online private game the biggest difference between crapless craps and original craps is that the shooter person throwing the dice is at a far greater disadvantage and has a house edge of 538  another difference is that this is one of the craps games in which a player can bet on rolling a 2 3 11 or 12 before a 7 is thrown  in crapless craps 2 and 12 have odds of 112 and have a house edge of 7143 while 3 and 11 have odds of 114 with a house edge of 625 die rich craps also known as fading craps open craps or money craps is a more recent version of the craps game and is played using a single die  these variants are usually considered to be games involving big money and are most commonly played in private  die rich craps involves specific bets made against the book the book keeps a specific percentage of the total amount of money wagered 57 and this is called vigorish in the online and offline gambling circuits this variation of craps is considered an illegal game the craps table in this variant will always consist of a win line lose line and box numbers of 4 5 6 8 9 and 10 high point craps is another version of the original craps game the initial roll of a 2 or a 3 in high point craps is ignored if a player rolls a 2 then the player will roll again if a player rolls 11 or 12 the player wins  any other total rolled is considered as 1 point and the player rolls again  this time needing to roll a total that is higher than 11 or 12 to win the house edge in this craps game variation is 235 new york craps is one of the variations of craps played mostly in the eastern coast of the usa true to its name  history states that this game was actually found and played in casinos in yugoslavia the uk and the bahamas in this craps variant the house edge is greater than las vegas craps or bank craps the table layout is also different and is called a doubleenddealer table  this variation is different from the original craps game in several ways but the primary difference is that new york craps doesnt allow come or dont come bets  new york craps players bet on box numbers like 4 5 6 8 9 or 10  the overall house edge in new york craps is 5 simplified craps is a variation that can be won by rolling 2 3 4 10 11 or 12 but if a 5 6 7 8 or 9 is rolled the player loses  simplified craps has an overall house edge of 28 in order to get around california laws barring the game in the state indian reservations have adapted the game to insert cards into the roll process in this game variation six cards eg a through 6 are used in an intermediate stage where physical dice are still rolled by the shooter but the physical die values are mapped to the actual die values through a 11 mapping determined by the cards   this mapping process changes nothing about the probability of the game but is simply a way to skirt the laws of the state in another variation cards representing dice are dealt directly from a continuous shuffling machine csm in lieu of dice   typically the csm will hold approximately 264 cards or 44 sets of 1 thru 6 spot cards   two cards are dealt from the shoe for each roll the game is played exactly as regular craps but the roll distribution from the remaining cards in the shoe are slightly skewed from the symmetric distribution of the dice   even if the dealer were to shuffle each roll back into the csm the effect of buffering a number of cards in the chute of the csm provides information about the skew of the next roll   analysis shows this type of game is biased towards the dont pass and dont come bets a player betting dont pass and dont come every roll and laying 10x odds receives a 2 profit on the initial dont pass  dont come bet each roll  using a counting system allows the player to attain a similar return at lower variance recreational or informal playing of craps outside of a casino is referred to as street craps or private craps the most notable difference between playing street craps and bank craps is that there is no bank or house to cover bets in street craps   players must bet against each other by covering or fading each others bets for the game to be played if money is used instead of chips and depending on the laws of where it is being played street craps can be an illegal form of gambling there are many variations of street craps the simplest way is to either agree on or roll a number as the point then roll the point again before you roll a seven   unlike more complex proposition bets offered by casinos street craps has more simplified betting options the shooter is required to make either a pass or a dont pass bet if he wants to roll the dice   another player must choose to cover the shooter to create a stake for the game to continue if there are several players the rotation of the player who must cover the shooter may change with the shooter comparable to a blind in poker the person covering the shooter will always bet against the shooter   for example if the shooter made a pass bet the person covering the shooter would make a dont pass bet to win   once the shooter is covered other players may make passdont pass bets or any other proposition bets as long as there is another player willing to cover 
conp an example of an npcomplete problem is the subset sum problem given a finite set of integers is there a nonempty subset which sums to zero  to give a proof of a yes instance one must specify a nonempty subset which does sum to zero the complementary problem is in conp and asks given a finite set of integers does every nonempty subset have a nonzero sum   to give a proof of a no instance one must specify a nonempty subset which does sum to zero which is easily verified this can be shown as follows  assume that there is an npcomplete problem that is in conp  since all problems in np can be reduced to this problem it follows that for all problems in np we can construct a nondeterministic turing machine that decides the complement of the problem in polynomial time ie np is a subset of conp  from this it follows that the set of complements of the problems in np is a subset of the set of complements of the problems in conp ie conp is a subset of np since we already knew that np is a subset of conp it follows that they are the same the proof for the fact that no conpcomplete problem can be in np is symmetrical if a problem can be shown to be in both np and conp that is generally accepted as strong evidence that the problem is probably not npcomplete since otherwise np  conp an example of a problem which is known to be in np and in conp is integer factorization given positive integers m and n determine if m has a factor less than n and greater than one   membership in np is clear if m does have such a factor then the factor itself is a certificate   membership in conp is more subtle one must list the prime factors of m and provide a primality certificate for each one integer factorization is often confused with the closely related primality problem   both primality testing and factorization have long been known to be np and conp problems the aks primality test published in 2002 proves that primality testing also lies in p while factorization may or may not have a polynomialtime algorithm manindra agrawal neeraj kayal nitin saxena httpwwwcseiitkacinusersmanindraalgebraprimalityv6pdf primes is in p annals of mathematics 160 2004 no 2 pp 781793 
coloradospringscolorado with an estimated population of 414358 in 2009 it is the second most populous city in the state of colorado behind denver and the 46th most populous city in the united states while the colorado springs metropolitan statistical area had an estimated population of 626227   the city covers convert1861 making it colorados largest city in area  colorado springs was selected as the no 1 best big city in best places to live by money magazine in 2006 and placed number one in outsides 2009 list of americas best cities colorado springs was founded on july 31 1871 by general william palmer with the intention of creating a highquality resort community and was soon nicknamed little london because of the many english tourists who came   nearby pikes peak and the garden of the gods made the citys location a natural choice within two years his flagship resort the antlers hotel opened welcoming us and international travelers as well as healthsavvy individuals seeking the high altitude and dry climate and palmers visions of a thriving quality resort town were coming true  soon after he founded the denver  rio grande railroad a critical regional railroad he maintained his presence in the citys early days by making many grants or sales of land to civic institutions  palmer and his wife saw colorado springs develop into one of the most popular travel destinations in the late 19th century united states the town of palmer lake and a geographic feature called the palmer divide and other more minor features are named after him and a bronze sculpture of palmer on a horse is prominently displayed downtown in front of palmer high school at the center of a busy intersection colorado springs present downtown location where general palmer first founded the city was partly due to palmers dislike of nearby roughandready colorado city now called old colorado city and not to be confused with presentday colorado city and its many saloons  palmer ensured his new planned city stayed alcohol free by buying a huge tract of land to the east of colorado city legally colorado springs stayed dry until the end of prohibition in 1933 but practically alcohol was readily available  conveniently located druggists advertised whiskey ale stout and beer for medicinal purposes in its earliest days of 18591860 colorado city was a major hub for sending mining supplies to south park where a major strike in the pikes peak gold rush was found   after the cripple creek gold discovery in 1891 ore mills in colorado city processed much of the gold ore at the golden cycle mill using palmers railroads the affluent who made money from the gold rush and industry did not stay in colorado city but built their large houses in the undeveloped downtown area of colorado springs ie  wood ave early pictures show several large stone buildings like httpppldorgspecialcollectionsprojectadminfulldisplayaspid113 colorado college st marys the library and the county courthouse sitting in large empty plains  this is unique during this period to prebuild a citys civic infrastructure in stone with wide streets laid out laid out before there was a population to justify the expense colorado city remained the county seat of el paso county until 1873 when the courthouse moved to colorado springs colorado city was the location of a 1903 labor strike that spread to cripple creek and eventually led to the colorado labor wars in 1891 winfield scott stratton discovered and developed one of the richest gold mines on earth in the nearby cripple creek and victor area and was perhaps the most generous early contributor to those communities and to colorado springs after he made his fortune he declined to build a mansion as the other gold rush millionaires were doing instead in later years he lived in a house in colorado springs he had built when he was a carpenter in pregold days in colorado springs he funded the myron stratton home for housing itinerant children and the elderly donated land for city hall the post office the courthouse which now houses the pioneer museum and a park he also greatly expanded the citys trolley car system and built the mining exchange building and gave to all three communities in many other ways great and small as strattons generosity became known he was also approached by many people looking for money and he became reclusive and eccentric in his later years spencer penrose also made his mark on colorado springs in its early yearsthough not until two decades after its founding  penrose started as a ladiesman and an adventurer   after making a fortune in the gold fields of nearby cripple creek in the 1890s he married julie villiers lewis mcmillan and settled down penrose used his wealth to invest in other national mineral concerns and financed construction of the broadmoor hotel the cheyenne mountain zoo the will rogers shrine of the sun the pikes peak highway what is now known as penrosest francis health services and established the el pomar foundation which still oversees many of his contributions in colorado springs today the flow of gold and silver ebbed as the decades passed and colorado citys economic fortunes faded with it the miners and those who processed the ore left or retired  because of the healthy natural scenic beauty mineral waters and extremely dry climate colorado springs became a tourist attraction and popular recuperation destination for tuberculosis patients the healthy waters in colorado springs contained so much natural fluoride that some peoples teeth developed colorado stain in 1909 dr frederick mckay of colorado springs discovered the colorado stain connection and that a little fluoride added to water would prevent cavities according to the permanent health exhibit at the httpwwwspringsgovcomsectionindexaspsectionid9 pioneers museum on june 14 1950 colorado springs annexed httpabstusacomcoroswell roswell which was founded in 1888 by coal miners and became a neighborhood  other locations such as austin bluffs broadmoor woodman valley httpabstusacomcopikeview pikeview httpabstusacomcopapeton papeton httpabstusacomcoknobhill knob hill httpabstusacomcoivywild ivywild httpabstusacomcostrattonmeadows stratton meadows httpabstusacomcostratmoor stratmoor httpabstusacomcoelsmere elsmare httpabstusacomcocimarronhills cimarron hills httpabstusacomcokelker kelker httpabstusacomcostratmoorhills stratmoor hills httpabstusacomcolaforet la foret httpabstusacomcogleneagle gleneagle httpabstusacomcoskinners skinners colorado springs saw its first military base in 1942 shortly after pearl harbor was attacked  for several years the city had been trying to attract a military installation to boost its flagging economy  in 1941 the city purchased convert25000 of what is now fort carson to try to lure a prospective army installation  during this time the us army established camp carson near the southern borders of the city in order to train and house troops in preparation for world war ii it was also during this time that the army began using colorado springs municipal airport it was renamed peterson field and used as a training base for heavy bombers the airport and base still share parts of the flightline the army expanded camp carson a venture that increased growth in colorado springs and provided a significant area of industry for the city  camp carson was named for the army scout general christopher kit carson who explored the vast western frontier during the 19th century  after world war ii the military stepped away from the springs camp carson was declining and the military was activating and deactivating peterson field irregularly  that all changed when the korean war erupted  camp carson which had declined to only 600 soldiers was revitalized along with many other parts of the springs in 1951 the united states air defense command moved to colorado springs and opened ent air force base named for major general uzal girard ent commander of the ninth air force during world war ii after the korean war peterson field was renamed peterson air force base and was permanently activated  in 1954 camp carson became  fort carson colorado springs first army post  later that same year president dwight d eisenhower selected colorado springs out of 300 other sites around the nation to be the site of the united states air force academy a new and growing army post an air force base and the air forces military academy together jumpstarted colorado springs growth the military boom continued and in 1963 norads main facility was built in cheyenne mountain this placed norad directly next to colorado springs and permanently secured the citys military presence  during the cold war the city greatly expanded due to increased revenue from various industries and the prevailing military presence in the city  in the mid 1970s ent air force base was shut down and later converted into the united states olympic training center military presence was further increased in 1983 with the founding of falcon air force base later changed to schriever air force base a base primarily tasked with missile defense and satellite control  fort carson and peterson are still growing and continue to contribute to the citys growth   air force space command is located on peterson afb according to the united states census bureau the city has a total area of 1861 square miles 4821km of which 1857square miles 4811km is land and 04square mile 10km 021 is water colorado springs features a semiarid climate kppen bsk the city receives approximately convert162 of annual precipitation which includes rain and snow   snowfall rarely occurs outside the months between october and may with an average snowfall of convert427   due to unusually low precipitation for several years after flooding in 1999 colorado springs enacted lawn water restrictions in 2002  these were lifted in 2005 january averages convert281 yet the city has relatively mild winters with large snow accumulations in the downtown area relatively rare a strong warming sun due to the altitude and only occasional episodic periods of subzero cold snaps and blizzards from october 31 to marchapril  snow often melts very quickly in arid climates as well which makes the winters mild  summers are very warm and dry with a july average of convert696 and highs reaching convert90 on 16 days per annum the normal high temperatures during the day are in the mid 80s into the low 90s with cooler days in the low 80s and upper 70s  also very hot days can reach the mid to upper 90s pretty often colorado springs is located on a flat plain just east of the southern rocky mountains which protects the city from extreme weather the city is made up of the mountains to the west the mountain divide to the north high plains and scattered desert land to the east and desert land to the south the winters in colorado springs are normal to mild usually with winter snow storms occurring but the snow often melts by the midtolate afternoon the usual high temperatures in the winter are in the mid to upper 40s with the lows in the mid to upper teens  however the mountains just west of the city can receive very large amounts of snow the summers in colorado springs are generally hot and dry but afternoon thunderstorms are common especially in july and august when the city receives the majority of its annual rainfall the usual highs in the summer are in the mid to high 80s with very hot days being in the low 90s  there are many relatively cool days in the upper 70s to low 80s the hottest temperature ever recorded in colorado springs was convert101 on june 7 1874 and the coldest temperature ever recorded was convert32 on january 20 1883  although the coldest average monthly high temperature of the year in colorado springs has historically been january in recent years december has had a colder average monthly high temperature colorado springs is also one of the most active lightning strike areas in the united states this natural phenomenon led nikola tesla to select colorado springs as the preferred location to build his lab and study electricity the united states census bureau estimates that in 2008 the population of the city of colorado springs was 380307 47th most populous us city and the population of the front range urban corridor was 4166855 according to the 20062008 american community survey the racial composition of colorado springs was as follows as of the census2 of 2000 limited only to the city limits and not including the very diverse fort carson area which many view as being a part of the colorado springs metropolitan area there were 360890 people 141516 households and 93117 families residing in the city the population density was 19429 people per square mile 7502km   there were 148690 housing units at an average density of 8005sqmi 3091km the racial makeup of the city was 8066 white 656 african american 088 native american 282 asian 021 pacific islander 501 from other races and 385 from two or more races  1201 of the population were hispanic or latino of any race there were 141516 households out of which 340 had children under the age of 18 living with them 515 were married couples living together 106 had a female householder with no husband present and 342 were nonfamilies 270 of all households were made up of individuals and 69 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older the average household size was 250 and the average family size was 306 in the city the population was spread out with 265 under the age of 18 103 from 18 to 24 328 from 25 to 44 208 from 45 to 64 and 96 who were 65 years of age or older the median age was 34 years  for every 100 females there were 978 males   for every 100 females age 18 and over there were 952 malesnote  city statistics do not include the demographic influence of five local military bases the median income for a household in the city was 45081 and the median income for a family was 53478  males had a median income of 36786 versus 26427 for females the per capita income for the city was 22496   about 61 of families and 87 of the population were below the poverty line including 108 of those under age 18 and 72 of those age 65 or over colorado springs is a councilmanager government with a mayor and city council that meets regularly to approve budgets enact ordinances and rule on land use and a city manager who deals with the daytoday aspects of running the city the mayor is elected in a citywide vote the city council consists of the mayor and eight additional members four of whom are elected from districts  and four who are elected at large   both council members and the mayor are elected to four year terms and may serve two terms in both positions a vice mayor is elected by council members from within their ranks on november 2 2010 colorado springs voters adopted a strong mayorcouncil form of government the city of colorado springs transitions to the new system of government in 2011   under the strong mayorcouncil system of government the mayor is the chief executive and the city council is the legislative branch the mayor will be fulltime and will no longer be a member of the city council the city council will add one additional atlarge member and stay at nine members the mayor will have veto authority with the city council having the ability to override a mayoral veto by a 23 votes 6 out of 9 in order to combat the nearly 38million budget shortfall projected in 2010 caused by current economic conditions resulting in decreased sales taxes a proposal to increase property taxes by 10million over five years was approved for the november 2009 ballot by the city council on august 25 2009  issue 2c was voted down on november 3 2009  an attempt to reform the citys taxpayers bill of rights tabor was considered but not put on the ballot  as a result the city reduced fire and police jobs stopped paving roads eliminated evening and weekend bus service reduced public trash control and asked residents to mow the grass in their neighborhood parks colorado springs economy is driven primarily by the military the hightech industry and tourism in that order the city is currently experiencing some growth mainly in the service sectors the defense industry plays a major role in the colorado springs economy with some of the citys largest employers coming from the sector a large segment of this industry is dedicated to the development and operation of various projects for missile defense  with its close ties to defense the aerospace industry has also influenced the colorado springs economy  although some defense corporations have left or downsized city campuses a slight growth trend is still recorded significant defense corporations in the city include boeing general dynamics harris corporation itt l3 communications lockheed martin and northrop grumman a large percentage of colorado springs economy is still based on manufacturing high tech and complex electronic equipment the high tech sector in the colorado springs area has decreased its overall presence over the past six years from around 21000 down to around 8000 with notable reductions in information technology and complex electronic equipment  due to a slowing in tourism the high tech sector still remains second to the military in terms of total revenue generated and employment  current trends project the high tech employment ratio will continue to decrease in the near future high tech corporations with connections to the city include according to the citys 2009 comprehensive annual financial report the top employers in the city are the united states military plays a very important role in the city   colorado springs is home to both army and air force bases  all these military installations border the city to the north south and east excluding schriever air force base which is located east of the city in el paso county fort carson is the citys largest military base and until mid2006 was home to the 3d armored cavalry regiment which relocated to fort hood texas by 2009 fort carson will be the home station of the 4th infantry division which will nearly double the bases population  fort carson is host to various training grounds for infantry armor and aviation units specifically the oh58 kiowa warrior fort carson is also the headquarters of the second and third battalions of the 10th special forces group the air force has critical aspects of their service based at colorado springs which carry on missile defense operations and development the air force bases a large section of the national missile defense operations here with peterson air force base set to operate large sections of the program  peterson afb is currently the headquarters of the majority of air force space command and the operations half of army space and missile defense commandarmy strategic command smdcarstrat peterson is also headquarters for the united states northern command usnorthcom one of the unified combatant commands usnorthcom directs all branches of the us military operations in their area of responsibility which includes the continental united states alaska canada and mexico in the event of national emergencies the president or secretary of defense can call upon usnorthcom for any required military assistance  service members from every branch of the us military are stationed at the command schriever air force base is home to the 50th space wing which controls warning navigational communications and spy satellites it is also the home of the space warfare center and the home for the 576th flight test squadron it is the location of the global positioning system gps master control station and gps operations center and the us naval observatory alternate master clock used to synchronize gps satellite time  schriever is also developing parts of national missile defense and runs parts of the annual wargames used by the nations military the north american aerospace defense command norad a component of americas missile defense system is located in cheyenne mountain air station when it was built at the height of the cold war norad caused some anxiety for the residents in and around colorado springs who believed the installation would be a primary target during a nuclear attack   although norad still operates today it is primarily tasked with the tracking of icbms and the military has recently decided to place cheyenne mountains noradnorthcom operations on warm standby and move operations to nearby peterson air force base the north end of the city is home to the vast united states air force academy grounds where cadets train to become officers in the air force the campus is famous for its unique chapel and draws visitors year round the air force sports programs belong to the mountain west conference colorado springs has gangs mostly on the east southeast and south sides of the city and one on the north part of town the east side crips dog city crips are on the east and southeast sides the ruthless ass gangsters another crip gang are located in the prospect lake area on the east side the sureos are on the south side of the city a large gang called the south side varrio sureos is located in the meadows park neighborhood on the south side a large population of bloods are also in colorado springs on the east side and southeast side of the city a known blood gang in the city is the neighborhood 45 bloods on the southeast side  another gang in colorado springs is the east dale street locos which are on the east side of the city a gang known as the white trash mafia was also started in the springs  because referendum 2c for higher funding was not passed the police have reduced some druggang surveillance and prioritize some police calls with property crimes having lower priority than others with the city located at the base of the rocky mountains and its many trails and parks colorado springs is a popular destination for tourists seeking scenery rock formations and other unique geological features like  pikes peak garden of the gods park seven falls and cave of the winds colorado springs is also home to a variety of cultural educational and historical attractions including the httpwwwcmheritagecenterorg cheyenne mountain heritage center the httpwwwprorodeohalloffamecomjoomla prorodeo hall of fame  museum of the american cowboy the cheyenne mountain zoo the colorado springs fine arts center the colorado springs pioneers museum the american numismatic association money museum peterson air and space museum and  the united states air force academy colorado springs is home to the united states olympic training center and the headquarters of the united states olympic committee in addition a number of united states national federations for individual olympic sports have their headquarters in colorado springs including the city has a particularly long association with the sport of figure skating having hosted the us figure skating championships 6 times and the world figure skating championships 5 times it is home to the world figure skating museum and hall of fame and the broadmoor skating club a notable training center for the sport   in recent years the world arena has hosted skating events such as skate america and the four continents figure skating championships although houses of worship of almost every major religion can be found in the city colorado springs has attracted a large influx of evangelical christians and christian organizations in recent years   at one time colorado springs was counted to be the national headquarters for 81 different religious organizations earning the city the tongueincheek nickname the evangelical vatican and the christian mecca religious groups with regional or international headquarters in colorado springs include the association of christian schools international the christian and missionary alliance compassion international every home for christ  focus on the family hcjb the international bible society the navigators the roman catholic diocese of colorado springs wayfm media group andrew wommack ministries and young life today colorado springs has many features of a modern urban area such as parks bike trails and urban openarea spaces  however it is not exempt from problems that typically plague cities that experience tremendous growth like overcrowded roads and highways crime sprawl and government budget issues  many of the problems are indirectly or directly caused by the citys difficulty in coping with the large population growth experienced in the last 20 years and the annexing of the banning lewis ranch area for 175000 future residents colorado springs is served by a bus system called mountain metro short for mountain metropolitan transit mountain metro also operates the front range express frex service which connects colorado springs to denver and several other metropolitan areas during weekdays   although the transit system serves much of the city and its nearest suburbs it lacks service to many important areas and has only limited hours of operation colorado springs is served by the colorado springs municipal airport in the state of colorado only denver international has more passenger traffic the airport has experienced a higher recovery rate in the post911 era than the rest of the country and is in the process of expanding its maintenance facilities taxiways and runways to accommodate future growth  in 2005 it served approximately two million passengers in 2004 the voters of colorado springs and el paso county established the pikes peak rural transportation authority and adopted a 1 sales tax dedicated to improving the regions transportation infrastructure   together with state funding for the colorado springs metro interstate expansion cosmix2007 completion and the i25 interchange with highway 16 2008 completion significant progress has been made since 2003 in addressing the transportation needs of the area  currently the city is trying to overcome a 233million budget gap created by falling sales taxes and rising expenses colorado springs is primarily served by the interstate highways i25 and us route 24 in addition there were plans to develop a front range toll road a privatelyowned turnpike which would begin south of pueblo and end around fort collins this toll road would allow rail and truck traffic to avoid the more highly traveled parts of i25 along the front range initially the project had support but has since been highly contested because of the need to condemn the land of many private citizens through the use of eminent domain to make room for the corridor in order to combat congestion the colorado department of transportation widened the interstate 25 corridor throughout the city from four lanes two in each direction to six lanes  ultimately the plan is to make the interstate eight lanes through the city when funding becomes available  this plan is similar in nature to denvers trex expansion plan several suggestions have been made to create a loop around the city though none have been implemented the original plan to convert powers boulevard a major eastside expressway into a bypass for i25 was abandoned although some interchanges are overpasses and roads further east are being looked at   easier access to the airport has also been suggested  overall the new thoroughfares would include one or two loop freeways a spur into the city connecting the main freeway and the loop eastwest expressway upgrades and easier access to the colorado springs airport two grade separated interchanges were built in order to alleviate congestion at some of the citys worst intersections   both the intersection at powers and woodmen and the intersection at austin bluffs and union were converted into grade separated interchanges a third interchange is being built at the intersection of woodmen road and academy boulevard and will be complete by 2011 colorado springs is part of a consortium of cities trying to build the front range commuter rail universities colleges and special schools include the citys public schools are divided into several districts private schools sister cities of colorado springs include colorado springs sister city organization began when colorado springs became partners with fujiyoshida the torii gate erected to commemorate the relationship stands at the corner of bijou street and nevada avenue and is one of the citys most recognizable landmarks the torii gate crisscrossed bridge and shrine located in the median between platte and bijou streets in downtown colorado springs were a gift to colorado springs erected in 1966 by the rotary club of colorado springs to celebrate the friendship between the two communities a plaque near the torii gate states that the purpose of the sister city relationship is to promote understanding between the people of our two countries and cities the fujiyoshida student exchange program has become an annual event to strengthen relations between the two cities the colorado springs youth symphony regularly invites the taiko drummers from the city to participate in a joint concert in the pikes peak center the orchestra played in bankstown australia in 2002 and again in june 2006 as part of their tours to australia and new zealand also in 2006 and 2010 the bankstown tap talent advancement program performed with the youth symphony and the colorado springs childrens chorale as a part of the annual in harmony program a notable similarity between colorado springs and its sister cities are their geographic positions three of the six cities being located near the base of a major mountain or range colorado springs has been home to a number of famous artists including actor lon chaney sr members of the band onerepublic science fiction author robert heinlein peanuts creator charles m schulz and athletes including baseball hall of fame member goose gossage and nba hall of famer rick barry additionally many wellknown figure skaters including olympic champions hayes alan jenkins david jenkins and peggy fleming have lived and trained in colorado springs during their competitive careers  black pegasus a well known hip hop artist is from colorado springs colorado springs has been the subject or setting for many books movies and television shows and is especially a frequent backdrop for political thrillers and militarythemed stories because of its many military installations and vital importance to the united states continental defense  notable television series using the city as a setting include dr quinn medicine woman and the stargate series stargate sg1 and the film wargames 
churchbuilding a church building is a building or structure whose primary purpose is to facilitate the meeting of a church   originally jewish christians met in synagogues such as the cenacle and in one anothers homes known as house churches   as christianity grew and became more accepted by governments notably with the edict of milan rooms and eventually entire buildings were set aside for the explicit purpose of christian worship such as the church of the holy sepulchre traditional church buildings are often in the shape of a cross and frequently have a tower or dome  more modern church buildings have a variety of architectural styles and layouts many buildings that were designed for other purposes have now been converted for church use and similarly many original church buildings have been put to other uses the first christians were like jesus jews resident in israel who worshiped on occasion in the temple in jerusalem and weekly in local synagogues  temple worship was a ritual involving sacrifice occasionally including the sacrifice of animals in atonement for sin offered to yahweh the new testament includes many references to jesus visiting the temple the first time as an infant with his parents see presentation of jesus at the temple the early history of the synagogue is obscure but it seems to be an institution developed for public jewish worship during the babylonian captivity when the jews and jewish proselytes did not have access to a temple the first temple having been destroyed c 586 bc for ritual sacrifice  instead they developed a daily and weekly service of readings from the torah and possibly also the prophets followed by commentary  this could be carried out in a house if the attendance was small enough and in many towns of the diaspora that was the case  in others more elaborate architectural settings developed sometimes by converting a house and sometimes by converting a previously public building the minimum requirements seem to have been a meeting room with adequate seating a case for the torah scroll and a raised platform for the reader jesus himself participated in this sort of service as a reader and commentator see gospel of luke and his followers probably remained worshipers in synagogues in some cities for example the cenacle in jerusalem however following the destruction of the second temple in jerusalem in 70 ad the new christian movement and rabbinic judaism increasingly parted ways see also list of events in early christianity the church became overwhelmingly gentile sometime in the 4th century the era of constantine i and christianity and the birth of the state church of the roman empire the syrian city of duraeuropos on the west bank of the euphrates was an outpost town between the roman and parthian empires  during a siege by parthian troops in ad 257 the buildings in the outermost blocks of the city grid were partially destroyed and filled with rubble to reinforce the city wall  thus were preserved and securely dated an early decorated church and a synagogue decorated with extensive wall paintings  both had been converted from earlier private buildings the duraeuropos church from 235 ad has a special room dedicated for baptisms with a large baptismal font during the 11th through 14th centuries a wave of building of cathedrals and smaller parish churches occurred across western europe in addition to being a place of worship the cathedral or parish church was used by the community in other ways it could serve as a meeting place for guilds or a hall for banquets  mystery plays were sometimes performed in cathedrals and cathedrals might also be used for fairs the church could be used as a place to thresh and store grain a common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross a long central rectangle with side rectangles and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary  these churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens  other common shapes for churches include a circle to represent eternity or an octagon or similar star shape to represent the churchs bringing light to the world  another common feature is the spire a tall tower on the west end of the church or over the crossing the latin word basilica derived from greek basilik sto royal stoa was originally used to describe a roman public building as in greece mainly a tribunal usually located in the forum of a roman town after the roman empire became officially christian see edict of thessalonica the term came by extension to refer to a large and important church that has been given special ceremonial rites by the pope thus the word retains two senses today one architectural and the other ecclesiastical a cathedral is a church usually roman catholic anglican oriental orthodox or eastern orthodox housing the seat of a bishop the word cathedral takes its name from the word cathedra or bishops throne in latin ecclesia cathedralis the term is sometimes improperly used to refer to any church of great size the church that has the function of cathedral is not of necessity a large building it might be as small as christ church cathedral in oxford england sacred heart cathedral in raleigh united states or chur cathedral in switzerland but frequently the cathedral along with some of the abbey churches was the largest building in any region old and disused church buildings can be seen as an interesting proposition for developers as the architecture and location often provide for attractive homes or city centre entertainment venues on the other hand many newer churches have decided to host meetings in public buildings such as schools universities cinemas or theatres there is another trend to convert old buildings for worship use rather than face the construction costs and planning difficulties of a new build   unusual venues in the uk include an old tram power station a former bus garage an old cinema and bingo hall a former territorial army drill hall a former synagogue and a windmill this section is only for information on churches in the widest sense see wikipediaexternal links for our policy on external links 
compactdisc a compact disc also known as a cd is an optical disc used to store digital data it was originally developed to store and playback sound recordings exclusively but later expanded to encompass data storage cdrom writeonce audio and data storage cdr rewritable media cdrw video compact discs vcd super video compact discs svcd photocd picturecd cdi and enhanced cd audio cds have been commercially available since october 1982 standard cds have a diameter of 120mm and can hold up to 80 minutes of uncompressed audio 700mb of data the mini cd has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80mm they are sometimes used for cd singles storing up to 24 minutes of audio or delivering device drivers cdroms and cdrs remain widely used technologies in the computer industry the cd and its extensions are successful in 2004 worldwide sales of cd audio cdrom and cdr reached about 30 billion discs  by 2007 200 billion cds had been sold worldwide  in 2010 compact discs have been largely replaced by other forms of digital storage such as flash drives with audio cd sales dropping nearly 50 from their peak in 2000 the compact disc is a spinoff of laserdisc technology  sony first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in september 1976  in september 1978 they demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150 minute playing time and with specifications of 44056 hz sampling rate 16bit linear resolution crossinterleaved error correction code that were similar to those of the compact disc introduced in 1982  technical details of sonys digital audio disc were presented during the 62nd aes convention held on march 1316 1979 in brussels on march 8 1979 philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called philips introduce compact disc in eindhoven netherlands on march 6 2009 philips received an ieee milestone with the following citation  on 8 march 1979 nv philips gloeilampenfabrieken demonstrated for the international press a compact disc audio player the demonstration showed that it is possible by using digital optical recording and playback to reproduce audio signals with superb stereo quality  this research at philips established the technical standard for digital optical recording systems later in 1979 sony and philips consumer electronics philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc  led by kees schouhamer immink and toshitada doi the research pushed forward laser and optical disc technology that began independently by philips and sony in 1977 and 1975 respectively told by a former member of the taskforce gives background information on the many technical decisions made including the choice of the sampling frequency playing time and disc diameter the taskforce consisted of around four to eight persons though according to philips the compact disc was thus invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team the first test cd was pressed in langenhagen near hannover germany by the polydor pressing operations plant the disc contained a recording of richard strausss eine alpensinfonie in english language an alpine symphony played by the berlin philharmonic and conducted by herbert von karajan the first public demonstration was on the bbc television program tomorrows world when the bee gees album living eyes 1981 was played  in august 1982 the real pressing was ready to begin in the new factory not far from the place where emil berliner had produced his first gramophone record 93 years earlier  by now deutsche grammophon berliners company and the publisher of the strauss recording had become a part of polygram the first cd to be manufactured at the new factory was the visitors 1981 by abba the first album to be released on cd was billy joels 52nd street that reached the market alongside sonys cd player cdp101 on october 1 1982 in japan early the following year on march 2 1983 cd players and discs 16 titles from cbs records were released in the united states and other markets  this event is often seen as the big bang of the digital audio revolution the new audio disc was enthusiastically received especially in the earlyadopting classical music and audiophile communities and its handling quality received particular praise  as the price of players gradually came down the cd began to gain popularity in the larger popular and rock music markets the first artist to sell a million copies on cd was dire straits with its 1985 album brothers in arms the first major artist to have his entire catalogue converted to cd was david bowie whose 15 studio albums were made available by rca records in february 1985 along with four greatest hits albums  in 1988 400 million cds were manufactured by 50 pressing plants around the world the cd was planned to be the successor of the gramophone record for playing music rather than primarily as a data storage medium  from its origins as a musical format cds have grown to encompass other applications  in june 1985 the computer readable cdrom readonly memory and in 1990 cdrecordable were introduced also developed by both sony and philips the cds compact format has largely replaced the audio cassette player in new automobile applications and recordable cds are an alternative to tape for recording music and copying music albums without defects introduced in compression used in other digital recording methods  other newer video formats such as dvd and bluray have used the same form factor as cds and video players can usually play audio cds as well  with the advent of the mp3 in the 2000s the sales of cds has dropped in seven out of the last eight years  in 2008 large label cd sales dropped 20 although independent and diy music sales may be tracking better according to figures released march 30 2009 a cd is made from 12mm thick 047 inches almostpure polycarbonate plastic and weighs 1520grams  from the center outward components are the center spindle hole the firsttransition area clamping ring the clamping area stacking ring the secondtransition area mirror band the information data area and the rim a thin layer of aluminium or more rarely gold is applied to the surface making it reflective the metal is protected by a film of lacquer normally spin coated directly on the reflective layer the label is printed on the lacquer layer  common printing methods for cds are screenprinting and offset printing cd data are stored as a series of tiny indentations known as pits encoded in a spiral track moulded into the top of the polycarbonate layer the areas between pits are known as lands  each pit is approximately 100nm deep by 500nm wide and varies from 850nm to 35m in length the distance between the tracks the pitch is 16m a cd is read by focusing a 780nm wavelength near infrared semiconductor laser through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer the change in height between pits actually ridges as seen by the laser and lands results in a difference in intensity in the light reflected  by measuring the intensity change with a photodiode the data can be read from the disc the pits and lands themselves do not directly represent the zeros and ones of binary data  instead nonreturntozero inverted nrzi encoding is used a change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one while no change indicates a series of zeros  there must be at least two and no more than ten zeros between each one which is defined by the length of the pit  this in turn is decoded by reversing the eighttofourteen modulation used in mastering the disc and then reversing the crossinterleaved reedsolomon coding finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc cds are susceptible to damage from both normal use and environmental exposure  pits are much closer to the label side of a disc enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of focus during playback  consequently cds are more likely to suffer damage on the label side of the disk  scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing the digital data on a cd begins at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge which allows adaptation to the different size formats available  standard cds are available in two sizes  by far the most common is 120mm in diameter with a 74 or 80minute audio capacity and a 650 or 700mb data capacity  this diameter has been adopted by subsequent formats including super audio cd dvd hd dvd and bluray disc 80mm discs mini cds were originally designed for cd singles and can hold up to 24 minutes of music or 210mb of data but never became popular  today nearly every single is released on a 120mm cd called a maxi single novelty cds are also available in numerous shapes and sizes and are used chiefly for marketing a common variant is the business card cd a single with portions removed at the top and bottom making the disk resemble a business card the logical format of an audio cd officially compact disc digital audio or cdda is described in a document produced by the formats joint creators sony and philips in 1980  the document is known colloquially as the red book after the color of its cover the format is a twochannel 16bit pcm encoding at a 441khz sampling rate per channel  fourchannel sound is an allowable option within the red book format but has never been implemented  monaural audio has no existing standard on a red book cd monosource material is usually presented as two identical channels on a stereo track the selection of the sample rate was based primarily on the need to reproduce the audible frequency range of 20hz  20khz the nyquistshannon sampling theorem states that a sampling rate of more than twice the maximum frequency of the signal to be recorded is needed resulting in a required rate of at least 40khz the exact sampling rate of 441khz was inherited from a method of converting digital audio into an analog video signal for storage on umatic video tape which was the most affordable way to transfer data from the recording studio to the cd manufacturer at the time the cd specification was being developed the device that converts an analog audio signal into pcm audio which in turn is changed into an analog video signal is called a pcm adaptor  this technology could store six samples three samples per stereo channel in a single horizontal line a standard ntsc video signal has 245 usable lines per field and 5994 fieldss which works out to be 44056 samplessstereo channel  similarly pal has 294 lines and 50 fields which gives 44100 samplessstereo channel  this system could store 14bit samples with some error correction or 16bit samples with almost no error correction there was a long debate over the use of 14bit philips or 16bit sony quantization and 44056 or 44100 sampless sony or approximately 44000 sampless philips when the sonyphilips task force designed the compact disc philips had already developed a 14bit da converter but sony insisted on 16bit  in the end 16 bits and 441 kilosamples per second prevailed  philips found a way to produce 16bit quality using its 14bit dac by using four times oversampling the partners aimed at a playing time of 60 minutes with a disc diameter of 100mm sony or 115mm philips the additional 14minute playing time subsequently required changing to a 120mm disc  kees immink philips chief engineer however denies this claiming that the increase was motivated by technical considerations and that even after the increase in size the furtwngler recording would not have fit on one of the earliest cds the story is slightly more involved  in 1979 philips owned polygram one of the worlds largest distributors of music  polygram had set up a large experimental cd plant in hannover germany which could produce huge numbers of cds having of course a diameter of 115mm  sony did not yet have such a facility if sony had agreed on the 115mm disc philips would have had a significant competitive edge in the market  sony decided that something had to be done the long playing time of beethovens ninth symphony imposed by ga was used to push philips to accept 120mm so that philips polygram lost its edge on disc fabrication the 74minute playing time of a cd which was longer than the 20 minutes per side typical of longplaying lp vinyl albums was often used to the cds advantage during the early years when cds and lps vied for commercial sales  cds would often be released with one or more bonus tracks enticing consumers to buy the cd for the extra material  however attempts to combine double lps onto one cd occasionally resulted in the opposite situation in which the cd would actually offer fewer tracks than the equivalent lp playing times beyond 74 minutes are achieved by increasing track pitch beyond the original red book standard  most players can accommodate the more closely spaced data the kirov orchestra recording of pyotr ilyich tchaikovskys the nutcracker conducted by valery gergiev and released by philipspolygram records catalogue number 462 114 on october 20 1998 clocks at 8114  disc two of gold deutche grammophonuniversal classics 477 743 by herbert von karajan clocks in at 8121  the mission of burma compilation album mission of burma released in 1988 by rykodisc previously held the record at 8008 the main parameters of the cd taken from the september 1983 issue of the red book are as follows the program area is 8605cm and the length of the recordable spiral is 8605cm216m538km  with a scanning speed of 12ms the playing time is 74 minutes or 650mb of data on a cdrom if the disc diameter were only 115mm the maximum playing time would have been 68 minutes ie six minutes less a disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players though some old ones fail  using a linear velocity of 12ms and a track pitch of 15m yields a playing time of 80 minutes or a data capacity of 700mb  even higher capacities on nonstandard discs up to 99 minutes are available at least as recordables but generally the tighter the tracks are squeezed the worse the compatibility the smallest entity in a cd is called a frame which consists of 33 bytes and contains six complete 16bit stereo samples two bytes  two channels  six samples  24 bytes the other nine bytes consist of eight circ errorcorrection bytes and one subcode byte used for control and display  each byte is translated into a 14bit word using eighttofourteen modulation which alternates with threebit merging words  in total there are 33  14  3  561 bits a 27bit unique synchronization word is added so that the number of bits in a frame totals 588 of which only 192 bits are music these 588bit frames are in turn grouped into sectors  each sector contains 98 frames totaling 98  24  2352 bytes of music the cd is played at a speed of 75 sectors per second which results in 176400 bytes per second  divided by two channels and two bytes per sample this results in a sample rate of 44100 samples per second for cdrom data discs the physical frame and sector sizes are the same  since error concealment cannot be applied to nonaudio data in case the circ error correction fails to recover the user data a third layer of error correction is defined reducing the payload to 2048 bytes per sector for the mode1 cdrom format  to increase the datarate for video cd mode2 cdrom the third layer has been omitted increasing the payload to 2336 useravailable bytes per sector only 16 bytes for synchronization and header data less than available in redbook audio for the red book stereo audio cd the time format is commonly measured in minutes seconds and frames mmssff where one frame corresponds to one sector or 175th of a second of stereo sound  in this context the term frame is erroneously applied in editing applications and does not denote the physical frame described above  in editing and extracting the frame is the smallest addressable time interval for an audio cd meaning that track start and end positions can only be defined in 175 second steps the largest entity on a cd is called a track a cd can contain up to 99 tracks including a data track for mixed mode discs  each track can in turn have up to 100 indexes though players which handle this feature are rarely found outside of pro audio particularly radio broadcasting the vast majority of songs are recorded under index 1 with the pregap being index 0  sometimes hidden tracks are placed at the end of the last track of the disc often using index 2 or 3  this is also the case with some discs offering 101 sound effects with 100 and 101 being indexed as two and three on track 99  the index if used is occasionally put on the track listing as a decimal part of the track number such as 992 or 993  information societys hack was one of very few cd releases to do this following a release with an equally obscure cdg feature the track and index structure of the cd carried forward to the dvd as title and chapter respectively current manufacturing processes allow an audio cd to contain up to 80 minutes variable from one replication plant to another without requiring the content creator to sign a waiver releasing the plant owner from responsibility if the cd produced is marginally or entirely unreadable by some playback equipment  thus in current practice maximum cd playing time has crept higher by reducing minimum engineering tolerances by and large this has not unacceptably reduced reliability cdtext is an extension of the red book specification for audio cd that allows for storage of additional text information eg album name song name artist on a standardscompliant audio cd the information is stored either in the leadin area of the cd where there is roughly five kilobytes of space available or in the subcode channels r to w on the disc which can store about 31 megabytes compact disc  graphics cdg is a special audio compact disc that contains graphics data in addition to the audio data on the disc the disc can be played on a regular audio cd player but when played on a special cdg player can output a graphics signal typically the cdg player is hooked up to a television set or a computer monitor these graphics are almost exclusively used to display lyrics on a television set for karaoke performers to sing along with the cdg format takes advantage of the channels r through w these six bits store the graphics information compact disc  extended graphics cdeg also known as cdxg is an improved variant of the compact disc  graphics cdg format  like cdg cdeg utilizes basic cdrom features to display text and video information in addition to the music being played  this extra data is stored in subcode channels rw very few if any cdeg discs have been published super audio cd sacd is a highresolution readonly optical audio disc format that provides much higher fidelity digital audio reproduction than the red book introduced in 1999 it was developed by sony and philips the same companies that created the red book sacd was in a format war with dvdaudio but neither has replaced audio cds in contrast to dvdaudio the sacd format has the feature of being able to produce hybrid discs these discs contain the sacd audio stream as well as a standard audio cd layer which is playable in standard cd players thus making them backward compatible cdmidi is a format used to store musicperformance data which upon playback is performed by electronic instruments that synthesize the audio  hence unlike red book these recordings are not audio for the first few years of its existence the compact disc was a medium used purely for audio  however in 1985 the yellow book cdrom standard was established by sony and philips which defined a nonvolatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs readable by a computer with a cdrom drive video cd vcd view cd  and compact disc digital video is a standard digital format for storing video media on a cd vcds are playable in dedicated vcd players most modern dvdvideo players personal computers and some video game consoles the vcd standard was created in 1993 by sony philips matsushita and jvc and is referred to as the white book standard overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to vhs video  poorly compressed vcd video can sometimes be lower quality than vhs video but vcd exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise and does not deteriorate further with each use which may be preferable super video cd super video compact disc or svcd is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs svcd was intended as a successor to vcd and an alternative to dvdvideo and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality svcd has twothirds the resolution of dvd and over 27 times the resolution of vcd one cdr disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard quality svcdformat video  while no specific limit on svcd video length is mandated by the specification one must lower the video bit rate and therefore quality in order to accommodate very long videos it is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one svcd without incurring significant quality loss and many hardware players are unable to play video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second photo cd is a system designed by kodak for digitizing and storing photos on a cd launched in 1992 the discs were designed to hold nearly 100 high quality images scanned prints and slides using special proprietary encoding  photo cd discs are defined in the beige book and conform to the cdrom xa and cdi bridge specifications as well they are intended to play on cdi players photo cd players and any computer with the suitable software irrespective of the operating system the images can also be printed out on photographic paper with a special kodak machine   this format is not to be confused with kodak picture cd which is a consumer product in cdrom format the philips green book specifies the standard for interactive multimedia compact discs designed for cdi players  this format is unusual because it hides the initial tracks which contains the software and data files used by cdi players by omitting the tracks from the discs toc table of contents  this causes audio cd players to skip the cdi data tracks  this is different from the cdi ready format which puts cdi software and data into the pregap of track 1  cdi was the leading format of its time but was supplanted by the politics of competition  philips interactive media lead the way in producing breakthrough titles including the first interactive coloring book sesame street disc and childrens programs groliers and comptoms encyclopedias and many more pathbreaking programs  during this period bernard luskin president of philips interactive media pioneered the concept of applying psychology to media and the emerging field of media psychology enhanced cd also known as cd extra and cd plus is a certification mark of the recording industry association of america for various technologies that combine audio and computer data for use in both compact disc and cdrom players the primary data formats for enhanced compact discs are mixed mode yellow bookred book cdi hidden track and multisession  blue book vinyldisc is the hybrid of a standard audio cd and the vinyl record the vinyl layer on the discs label side can hold approximately three minutes of music replicated cds are massproduced initially using a hydraulic press  small granules of heated raw polycarbonate plastic are fed into the press a screw forces the liquefied plastic into the mold cavity the mold closes with a metal stamper in contact with the disc surface the plastic is allowed to cool and harden  once opened the disc substrate is removed from the mold by a robotic arm and a 15mm diameter center hole called a stacking ring is created the time it takes to stamp one cd is usually 2 to 3 seconds this method produces the clear plastic blank part of the disc  after a metallic reflecting layer usually aluminum but sometimes gold or other metal is applied to the clear blank substrate the disc goes under a uv light for curing and it is ready to go to press  to prepare to press a cd a glass master is made using a highpowered laser on a device similar to a cd writer the glass master is a positive image of the desired cd surface with the desired microscopic pits and lands  after testing it is used to make a die by pressing it against a metal disc the die is a negative image of the glass master typically several are made depending on the number of pressing mills that are to make the cd the die then goes into a press and the physical image is transferred to the blank cd leaving a final positive image on the disc a small amount of lacquer is applied as a ring around the center of the disc and rapid spinning spreads it evenly over the surface  edge protection lacquer is applied before the disc is finished the disc can then be printed and packed manufactured cds that are sold in stores are sealed via a process called polywrapping or shrink wrapping recordable compact discs cdrs are injection molded with a blank data spiral a photosensitive dye is then applied after which the discs are metalized and lacquercoated the write laser of the cd recorder changes the color of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard cd player to see the data just as it would with a standard stamped disc the resulting discs can be read by most cdrom drives and played in most audio cd players cdr recordings are designed to be permanent  over time the dyes physical characteristics may change however causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods the design life is from 20 to 100 years depending on the quality of the discs the quality of the writing drive and storage conditions  however testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions  this failure is known as cd rot  cdrs follow the orange book standard the recordable audio cd is designed to be used in a consumer audio cd recorder  these consumer audio cd recorders use scms serial copy management system an early form of digital rights management drm to conform to the ahra audio home recording act the recordable audio cd is typically somewhat more expensive than cdr due to a lower volume and b a 3 ahra royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy a higher density recording format that can hold cdrw is a rerecordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye the write laser in this case is used to heat and alter the properties amorphous vs crystalline of the alloy and hence change its reflectivity a cdrw does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed cd or a cdr and so many earlier cd audio players cannot read cdrw discs although most later cd audio players and standalone dvd players can  cdrws follow the orange book standard due to technical limitations the original rewritable cd could be written no faster than 4x speed  high speed rewritable cd has a different design that permits writing at speeds ranging from 4x to 12x original cdrw drives can only write to original rewritable cds high speed cdrw drives can typically write to both original rewritable cd discs and high speed rewritable cd discs  both types of cdrw discs can be read in most cd drives higher speed cdrw discs ultra speed 16x to 24x write speed and ultra speed 32x write speed are now available the rewritable audio cd is designed to be used in a consumer audio cd recorder which wont without modification accept standard cdrw discs  these consumer audio cd recorders use the serial copy management system scms an early form of digital rights management drm to conform to the united states audio home recording act ahra the rewritable audio cd is typically somewhat more expensive than cdrw due to a lower volume and b a 3 ahra royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy the red book audio specification except for a simple anticopy bit in the subcode does not include any copy protection mechanism  starting in early 2002 attempts were made by record companies to market copyprotected nonstandard compact discs which cannot be ripped or copied to hard drives or easily converted to mp3s one major drawback to these copyprotected discs is that most will not play on either computer cdrom drives or some standalone cd players that use cdrom mechanisms  philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked compact disc digital audio logo because they violate the red book specifications  numerous copyprotection systems have been countered by readily available often free software 
charleswilliamsbritishwriter williams was born in london in 1886 the only son of richard and mary williams of islington he had one sister edith born in 1889  educated at st albans school hertfordshire williams was awarded a scholarship to university college london but was forced to leave in 1904 without taking a degree because his family lacked the financial resources to support him  in the same year he began work in a methodist bookroom williams was hired by oxford university press as a proofreading assistant in 1908 before quickly climbing to the position of editor he continued to work at oup in various positions of increasing responsibility until his death in 1945  one of his greatest editorial achievements was the publication of the first major englishlanguage edition of the works of sren kierkegaard although chiefly remembered as a novelist williams also published poetry works of literary criticism theology drama history biography and a voluminous number of book reviews some of his best known novels are war in heaven 1930 descent into hell 1937 and all hallows eve 1945  t s eliot who wrote an introduction for the last of these described williamss novels as supernatural thrillers because they explore the sacramental intersection of the physical with the spiritual while also examining the ways in which power even spiritual power can corrupt as well as sanctify  all of williams fantasies unlike those of j r r tolkien and most of those of c s lewis are set in the contemporary world  more recent writers of fantasy novels with contemporary settings notably tim powers cite williams as a model and inspiration  w h auden one of williams greatest admirers reportedly reread williamss extraordinary and highly unconventional history of the church descent of the dove 1939 every year  williamss study of dante entitled the figure of beatrice 1944 was very highly regarded at its time of publication and continues to be consulted by dante scholars today  williams however regarded his most important work to be his extremely dense and complex arthurian poetry of which two books were published taliessin through logres 1938 and the region of the summer stars 1944 and more remained unfinished at his death some of williams best essays were collected and published in anne ridlers image of the city and other essays in 1958 williams gathered many followers and disciples during his lifetime he was for a period a member of the salvator mundi temple of the fellowship of the rosy cross he met fellow anglican evelyn underhill who was affiliated with a similar group the order of the golden dawn in 1937 and was later to write the introduction to her published letters in 1943  williams also formed masterdisciple relationships with young women throughout his lifetime the best known though probably not the most significant of these occurred in the early 1940s with lois lang sims lang sims whom williams referred to as lalage published a series of letters that williams wrote to her during this period in a volume entitled letters to lalage 1989  though williams married his first sweetheart florence conway in 1917 he continually struggled to reconcile a lifelong though probably unconsummated love affair with phyllis jones who joined the oxford university press in 1924 as librarian with his christian faith he was an unswerving and devoted member of the church of england reputedly with a refreshing tolerance of the scepticism of others and a firm belief in the necessity of a doubting thomas in any apostolic body although williams attracted the attention and admiration of some of the most notable writers of his day including t s eliot and w h auden his greatest admirer was probably c s lewis whose novel that hideous strength was at the time regarded as entirely inspired by williamss novels  williams came to know lewis after reading lewiss recently published study the allegory of love he was so impressed he jotted down a letter of congratulations and dropped it in the mail  coincidentally lewis had just finished reading williamss novel the place of the lion and had written a similar note of congratulations the letters crossed in the mail and led to an enduring and fruitful friendship  when world war ii broke out in 1939 oxford university press moved its offices from london to oxford although williams was reluctant to leave his beloved city this move did allow him to participate regularly in lewiss literary society known as the inklings in this setting williams was able to read and improve his final published novel all hallows eve as well as to hear j r r tolkien read some of his early drafts of the lord of the rings aloud to the group  in addition to meeting in lewis rooms at oxford they also regularly met at the eagle and child pub in oxford better known by its nickname the bird and baby during this time williams also gave lectures at oxford on john milton and received an honorary ma degree  williams is buried in holywell cemetery oxford his headstone bears the word poet chronological list of williamss publications 
renderingcomputergraphics rendering is one of the major subtopics of 3d computer graphics and in practice always connected to the others  in the graphics pipeline it is the last major step giving the final appearance to the models and animation  with the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s onward it has become a more distinct subject rendering has uses in architecture video games simulators movie or tv special effects and design visualization each employing a different balance of features and techniques  as a product a wide variety of renderers are available some are integrated into larger modeling and animation packages some are standalone some are free opensource projects  on the inside a renderer is a carefully engineered program based on a selective mixture of disciplines related to light physics visual perception mathematics and software development in the case of 3d graphics rendering may be done slowly as in prerendering or in real time   prerendering is a computationally intensive process that is typically used for movie creation while realtime rendering is often done for 3d video games which rely on the use of graphics cards with 3d hardware accelerators when the preimage a wireframe sketch usually is complete rendering is used which adds in bitmap textures or procedural textures lights bump mapping and relative position to other objects the result is a completed image the consumer or intended viewer sees for movie animations several images frames must be rendered and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort  most 3d image editing programs can do this a rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features  rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques while others are produced together many rendering algorithms have been researched and software used for rendering may employ a number of different techniques to obtain a final image tracing every particle of light in a scene is nearly always completely impractical and would take a stupendous amount of time  even tracing a portion large enough to produce an image takes an inordinate amount of time if the sampling is not intelligently restricted therefore four loose families of moreefficient light transport modelling techniques have emerged rasterization including scanline rendering geometrically projects objects in the scene to an image plane without advanced optical effects ray casting considers the scene as observed from a specific pointofview calculating the observed image based only on geometry and very basic optical laws of reflection intensity and perhaps using monte carlo techniques to reduce artifacts and ray tracing is similar to ray casting but employs more advanced optical simulation and usually uses monte carlo techniques to obtain more realistic results at a speed that is often orders of magnitude slower the fourth type of light transport techique radiosity is not usually implemented as a rendering technique but instead calculates the passage of light as it leaves the light source and illuminates surfaces  these surfaces are usually rendered to the display using one of the other three techniques most advanced software combines two or more of the techniques to obtain goodenough results at reasonable cost another distinction is between image order algorithms which iterate over pixels of the image plane and object order algorithms which iterate over objects in the scene  generally object order is more efficient as there are usually fewer objects in a scene than pixels a highlevel representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels   these elements are referred to as primitives   in a schematic drawing for instance line segments and curves might be primitives   in a graphical user interface windows and buttons might be the primitives   in 3d rendering triangles and polygons in space might be primitives if a pixelbypixel image order approach to rendering is impractical or too slow for some task then a primitivebyprimitive object order approach to rendering may prove useful   here one loops through each of the primitives determines which pixels in the image it affects and modifies those pixels accordingly   this is called rasterization and is the rendering method used by all current graphics cards rasterization is frequently faster than pixelbypixel rendering   first large areas of the image may be empty of primitives rasterization will ignore these areas but pixelbypixel rendering must pass through them   second rasterization can improve cache coherency and reduce redundant work by taking advantage of the fact that the pixels occupied by a single primitive tend to be contiguous in the image   for these reasons rasterization is usually the approach of choice when interactive rendering is required however the pixelbypixel approach can often produce higherquality images and is more versatile because it does not depend on as many assumptions about the image as rasterization the older form of rasterization is characterized by rendering an entire face primitive as a single color   alternatively rasterization can be done in a more complicated manner by first rendering the vertices of a face and then rendering the pixels of that face as a blending of the vertex colors   this version of rasterization has overtaken the old method as it allows the graphics to flow without complicated textures a rasterized image when used face by face tends to have a very blocklike effect if not covered in complex textures the faces arent smooth because there is no gradual color change from one primitive to the next   this newer method of rasterization utilizes the graphics cards more taxing shading functions and still achieves better performance because the simpler textures stored in memory use less space  sometimes designers will use one rasterization method on some faces and the other method on others based on the angle at which that face meets other joined faces thus increasing speed and not hurting the overall effect in ray casting the geometry which has been modeled is parsed pixel by pixel line by line from the point of view outward as if casting rays out from the point of view  where an object is intersected the color value at the point may be evaluated using several methods  in the simplest the color value of the object at the point of intersection becomes the value of that pixel the color may be determined from a texturemap a more sophisticated method is to modify the colour value by an illumination factor but without calculating the relationship to a simulated light source  to reduce artifacts a number of rays in slightly different directions may be averaged rough simulations of optical properties may be additionally employed a simple calculation of the ray from the object to the point of view is made  another calculation is made of the angle of incidence of light rays from the light sources and from these as well as the specified intensities of the light sources the value of the pixel is calculated  another simulation uses illumination plotted from a radiosity algorithm or a combination of these two raycasting is primarily used for realtime simulations such as those used in 3d computer games and cartoon animations where detail is not important or where it is more efficient to manually fake the details in order to obtain better performance in the computational stage  this is usually the case when a large number of frames need to be animated the resulting surfaces have a characteristic flat appearance when no additional tricks are used as if objects in the scene were all painted with matte finish in a final production quality rendering of a ray traced work multiple rays are generally shot for each pixel and traced not just to the first object of intersection but rather through a number of sequential bounces using the known laws of optics such as angle of incidence equals angle of reflection and more advanced laws that deal with refraction and surface roughness once the ray either encounters a light source or more probably once a set limiting number of bounces has been evaluated then the surface illumination at that final point is evaluated using techniques described above and the changes along the way through the various bounces evaluated to estimate a value observed at the point of view  this is all repeated for each sample for each pixel in distribution ray tracing at each point of intersection multiple rays may be spawned  in path tracing however only a single ray or none is fired at each intersection utilizing the statistical nature of monte carlo experiments as a bruteforce method ray tracing has been too slow to consider for realtime and until recently too slow even to consider for short films of any degree of quality although it has been used for special effects sequences and in advertising where a short portion of high quality perhaps even photorealistic footage is required however efforts at optimizing to reduce the number of calculations needed in portions of a work where detail is not high or does not depend on ray tracing features have led to a realistic possibility of wider use of ray tracing  there is now some hardware accelerated ray tracing equipment at least in prototype phase and some game demos which show use of realtime software or hardware ray tracing the optical basis of the simulation is that some diffused light from a given point on a given surface is reflected in a large spectrum of directions and illuminates the area around it the simulation technique may vary in complexity  many renderings have a very rough estimate of radiosity simply illuminating an entire scene very slightly with a factor known as ambiance  however when advanced radiosity estimation is coupled with a high quality ray tracing algorithim images may exhibit convincing realism particularly for indoor scenes in advanced radiosity simulation recursive finiteelement algorithms bounce light back and forth between surfaces in the model until some recursion limit is reached the colouring of one surface in this way influences the colouring of a neighbouring surface and vice versa the resulting values of illumination throughout the model sometimes including for empty spaces are stored and used as additional inputs  when performing calculations in a raycasting or raytracing model due to the iterativerecursive nature of the technique complex objects are particularly slow to emulate  prior to the standardization of rapid radiosity calculation some graphic artists used a technique referred to loosely as false radiosity by darkening areas of texture maps corresponding to corners joints and recesses and applying them via selfillumination or diffuse mapping for scanline rendering  even now advanced radiosity calculations may be reserved for calculating the ambiance of the room from the light reflecting off walls floor and ceiling without examining the contribution that complex objects make to the radiosityor complex objects may be replaced in the radiosity calculation with simpler objects of similar size and texture radiosity calculations are viewpoint independent which increases the computations involved but makes them useful for all viewpoints if there is little rearrangement of radiosity objects in the scene the same radiosity data may be reused for a number of frames making radiosity an effective way to improve on the flatness of ray casting without seriously impacting the overall rendering timeperframe because of this radiosity is a prime component of leading realtime rendering methods and has been used from beginningtoend to create a large number of wellknown recent featurelength animated 3dcartoon films one problem that any rendering system must deal with no matter which approach it takes is the sampling problem   essentially the rendering process tries to depict a continuous function from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels   as a consequence of the nyquistshannon sampling theorem any spatial waveform that can be displayed must consist of at least two pixels which is proportional to image resolution   in simpler terms this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details peaks or troughs in color or intensity that are smaller than one pixel if a naive rendering algorithm is used without any filtering high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly aliasing to be present in the final image   aliasing typically manifests itself as jaggies or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible  in order to remove aliasing all rendering algorithms if they are to produce goodlooking images must use some kind of lowpass filter on the image function to remove high frequencies a process called antialiasing due to the large number of calculations a work in progress is usually only rendered in detail appropriate to the portion of the work being developed at a given time so in the initial stages of modeling wireframe and ray casting may be used even where the target output is ray tracing with radiosity it is also common to render only parts of the scene at high detail and to remove objects that are not important to what is currently being developed for realtime it is appropriate to simplify one or more common approximations and tune to the exact parameters of the scenery in question which is also tuned to the agreed parameters to get the most bang for the buck the implementation of a realistic renderer always has some basic element of physical simulation or emulation  some computation which resembles or abstracts a real physical process the term physicallybased indicates the use of physical models and approximations that are more general and widely accepted outside rendering a particular set of related techniques have gradually become established in the rendering community the basic concepts are moderately straightforward but intractable to calculate and a single elegant algorithm or approach has been elusive for more general purpose renderers  in order to meet demands of robustness accuracy and practicality an implementation will be a complex combination of different techniques rendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application this is the key academictheoretical concept in rendering it serves as the most abstract formal expression of the nonperceptual aspect of rendering  all more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation meaning at a particular position and direction the outgoing light lo is the sum of the emitted light le and the reflected light the reflected light being the sum of the incoming light li from all directions multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle  by connecting outward light to inward light via an interaction point this equation stands for the whole light transport  all the movement of light  in a scene the bidirectional reflectance distribution function brdf expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows light interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models diffuse reflection and specular reflection although both can be brdfs rendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics  known as geometric optics  treating light at its basic level as particles bouncing around is a simplification but appropriate the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes and are significantly more difficult to simulate  notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction as seen in the colours of cds and dvds and polarisation as seen in lcds both types of effect if needed are made by appearanceoriented adjustment of the reflection model though it receives less attention an understanding of human visual perception is valuable to rendering  this is mainly because image displays and human perception have restricted ranges a renderer can simulate an almost infinite range of light brightness and color but current displays  movie screen computer monitor etc  cannot handle so much and something must be discarded or compressed  human perception also has limits and so does not need to be given largerange images to create realism  this can help solve the problem of fitting images into displays and furthermore suggest what shortcuts could be used in the rendering simulation since certain subtleties wont be noticeable  this related subject is tone mapping mathematics used in rendering includes linear algebra calculus numerical mathematics signal processing and monte carlo methods rendering for movies often takes place on a network of tightly connected computers known as a render farm the current state of the art in 3d image description for movie creation is the mental ray scene description language designed at mental images and the renderman shading language designed at pixar  compare with simpler 3d fileformats such as vrml or apis such as opengl and directx tailored for 3d hardware accelerators other renderers including proprietary ones can and are sometimes used but most other renderers tend to miss one or more of the often needed features like good texture filtering texture caching programmable shaders highend geometry types like hair subdivision or nurbs surfaces with tesselation on demand geometry caching raytracing with geometry caching high quality shadow mapping speed or patentfree implementations   other highly sought features these days may include ipr and hardware renderingshading do not place advertisements here commercial links will be removed see this articles talk page wpel and wpspam for more information wikipedia is not a link directory   consider submitting your link to dmoz instead 
cpan like many programming languages perl has mechanisms to use external libraries of code making one file contain common routines used by several programs   perl calls these modules   perl modules are typically installed in one of several directories whose paths are placed in the perl interpreter when it is first compiled on unixlike operating systems common paths include usrlibperl5 usrlocallibperl5 and several of their subdirectories perl comes with a small set of core modules some of these perform bootstrapping tasks such as extutilsmakemaker which is used for building and installing other extension modules others like cgipm are merely commonlyused the authors of perl do not expect this limited group to meet every need however the cpans main purpose is to help programmers locate modules and programs not included in the perl standard distribution it structure is decentralized  authors maintain and improve their own modules  forking and creating competing modules for the same task or purpose is common  there is no formal bug tracking system but there is a 3rd party bug tracking system that cpan designated as the suggested official method of reporting issues with modules  continuous development on modules is rare many are abandoned by their authors or go years between new versions being released  sometimes a maintainer will be appointed to an abandoned module they can release new versions of the module and accept patches from the community to the module as their time permits  cpan has no revision control system it is also used to distribute new versions of perl as well as related projects such as parrot the cpan is an important resource for the professional perl programmer  with over 18000 modules containing 20000000 lines of code as of october 2009 the cpan can save programmers weeks of time and large perl programs often make use of dozens of modules some of them such as the dbi family of modules used for interfacing with sql databases are nearly irreplaceable in their area of function others such as the listutil module are simply handy resources containing a few common functions files on the cpan are referred to as distributions a distribution may consist of one or more modules documentation files or programs packaged in a common archiving format such as a gzipped tar archive or a pkware zip file  distributions will often contain installation scripts usually called makefilepl or buildpl and test scripts which can be run to verify the contents of the distribution are functioning properly  new distributions are uploaded to the perl authors upload server or pause see the section uploading distributions with pause in 2003 distributions started to include metadata files called metayml indicating the distributions name version dependencies and other useful information however not all distributions contain metadata  when metadata is not present in a distribution the pauses software will usually try to analyze the code in the distribution to look for the same information this is not necessarily very reliable with thousands of distributions cpan needs to be structured to be useful  distributions on the cpan are divided into 24 broad chapters based on their purpose such as internationalization and locale archiving compression and conversion and mail and usenet news distributions can also be browsed by author  finally the natural hierarchy of perl module names such as apachedbi or linguaeninflect can sometimes be used to browse modules in the cpan cpan module distributions usually have names in the form of cgiapplication31 where the  used in the modules name has been replaced with a dash and the version number has been appended to the name but this is only a convention many prominent distributions break the convention especially those that contain multiple modules  security restrictions prevent a distribution from ever being replaced so virtually all distribution names do include a version number the heart of cpan is its worldwide network of  more than 260 mirrors in more than 60 countries most mirrors update themselves hourly daily or bidaily from the cpan master site some sites are major ftp servers which mirror lots of other software but others are simply servers owned by companies that use perl heavily  there are at least two mirrors on every continent except antarctica for more information on cpan mirrors see httpmirrorscpanorg mirrorscpanorg several search engines have been written to help perl programmers sort through the cpan the most popular and official is httpsearchcpanorg searchcpanorg which includes textual search a browsable index of modules and extracted copies of all distributions currently on the cpan other cpan search engines that have been set up are cpan testers are a group of volunteers who will download and test distributions as they are uploaded to cpan this enables the authors to have their modules tested on many platforms and environments that they would otherwise not have access to thus helping to promote portability as well as a degree of quality  smoke testers send reports which are then collated and used for a variety of presentation websites including the main reports site statistics and dependencies a family of other loosely integrated support websites have been created as the cpan has grown in size and scale  these are created and managed by individual perl developers and provide data feeds to each other in various adhoc ways there is also a perl core module named cpan its usually differentiated from the repository itself by calling it cpanpm   cpanpm is mainly an interactive shell which can be used to search for download and install distributions an interactive shell called cpan is also provided in the perl core and is the usual way of running cpanpm  after a short configuration process and mirror selection it uses tools available on the users computer to automatically download unpack compile test and install modules it is also capable of updating itself more recently an effort to replace cpanpm with something cleaner and more modern has resulted in the cpanplus or cpan set of modules   cpanplus separates the backend work of downloading compiling and installing modules from the interactive shell used to issue commands it also supports several advanced features such as cryptographic signature checking and test result reporting   finally cpanplus can uninstall a distribution   cpanplus was added to the perl core in version 5100 both modules can check a distributions dependencies and can be set to recursively install any prerequisites either automatically or with individual user approval   both support ftp and http and can work through firewalls and proxies authors can upload new distributions to the cpan through the perl authors upload server httppauseperlorgpausequery pause to do so they must httpspauseperlorgpausequeryactionrequestid request a pause account   registration information can be found at the httpspauseperlorgpausequeryactionpause04aboutregistering pause faq registrations are manually reviewed so the process may take a week or longer once registered the new pause account has a directory in the cpan under authorsidfirst letterfirst two lettersauthor id they may use a web interface at httpspauseperlorg pauseperlorg or the pause ftp server to upload files to their directory and delete them   pause will warn an administrator if a user uploads a module that already exists unless they are listed as a comaintainer   this can be specified through pauses web interface experienced perl programmers often comment that half of perls power is in the cpan though the tex typesetting language has an equivalent the ctan and in fact the cpans name is based on the ctan few languages have an exhaustive central repository for libraries the php language has pecl and pear python has a pypi python package index repository ruby has rubygems lua has luarocks haskell has hackage and an associated installermake clone cabal but none of these are as large as the cpan other major languages such as java and c have nothing similar to the cpan though for java there is central maven  and c has the boost c libraries the cpan has grown so large and comprehensive over the years that many people learning perl seem to elevate it to a sort of mythical status and express surprise when they begin to encounter topics for which a cpan module doesnt exist already the cpans influence on perls eclectic culture should not be underestimated either   as a hive of activity in the perl world the cpan both shapes and is shaped by perl culture   its selfappointed master librarian jarkko hietaniemi often takes part in the april fools day jokes so popular on the internet on 1 april 2002 the site was temporarily named to cjan where the j stood for java in 2003 the httpwwwcpanorg wwwcpanorg domain name was redirected to matts script archive a site infamous in the perl community for having badlywritten code beyond april fools however some of the distributions on the cpan are jokes in themselves the acme hierarchy is reserved for joke modules for instance acmedont adds a dont function that doesnt run the code given to it to complement the do builtin which does   even outside the acme hierarchy some modules are still written largely for amusement one example is linguaromanaperligata which can be used to write perl programs in a subset of latin in 2005 a group of perl developers who also had an interest in javascript got together to create jsan the javascript archive network the jsan is a neardirect port of the cpan infrastructure for use with the javascript language which for most of its lifespan did not have a cohesive community in 2008 after a chance meeting with cpan admin adam kennedy at the open source developers conference linux kernel developer rusty russell created the httpccanozlabsorg ccan the comprehensive c archive network the ccan is a direct port of the cpan architecture for use with the c language over the years the cpan has had a range of unusual nonperl things uploaded to it  here are a few examples 
couscous couscous granules are made by rolling moistened coarsely ground semolina wheat into small balls which are then coated with finely ground wheat flour the finished granules are roughly spherical shape and about one millimetre in diameter before cooking  different cereals may be used regionally to produce the granules   traditional couscous requires considerable preparation time and is usually steamed  in many places a moreprocessed quickcook couscous is available and is particularly valued for its short preparation time  couscous is traditionally served under a meat or vegetable stew it can also be eaten alone flavored or plain warm or cold eg mixed with tabbouleh or as a side dish the dish is a traditional staple food throughout west africa sahel france spain and the canary islands portugal madeira italy particularly in western sicilys province of trapani as well as in turkey bulgaria greece malta cyprus parts of the middle east and india and is eaten in many other parts of the world as well couscous is a grain product made from semolina coarsely ground durum wheat or in some regions from coarsely ground barley or pearl millet   in brazil the traditional couscous is made from cornmeals the semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets sprinkled with dry flour to keep them separate and then sieved the pellets which are too small to be finished granules of couscous fall through the sieve to be again sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets  this process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny granules of couscous this process is very labourintensive  in the traditional method of preparing couscous groups of women would come together and make large batches over several days4  these would then be dried in the sun and used for several months  couscous was traditionally made from the hard part of the durum the part of the grain that resisted the grinding of the relatively primitive millstone  in modern times couscous production is largely mechanized and the product is sold in markets around the world in the sahel pearl millet is pounded or milled to the size and consistency necessary for the couscousdateaugust 2009 the name is derived from berber seksu meaning well rolled well formed rounded numerous different names and pronunciations for couscous exist around the world  couscous is ksks or kuskus in the united kingdom and only the latter in the united states in  berber it is known as seksu and in  pronounced kuskus in israel couscous is known as  it is known as kuskus in morocco algeria turkey libya kuseksi in tunisia and kuskusi  in egypt the variant keskesu is mainly used by the tuareg in libya it is commonly called kusksi though kisksu is also used  in malta something called kusksu is similar but much larger in size  at trapani in sicily cuscusu is served with fish like trout or anchovies one of the first written references is from an anonymous 13thcentury moroccanandalusian cookbook kitb altabkh f almaghrib walandalus arabic the book of cooking in the maghreb and alandalus with a httpwwwdaviddfriedmancommedievalcookbooksandalusianandalusian8htm recipe for couscous that was known all over the world  couscous was known to the nasrid royalty in granada as well  and in the 13th century a syrian historian from aleppo includes four references for couscous  these early mentions show that couscous spread rapidly but generally that couscous was common from tripolitania to the west while from cyrenaica to the east the main cuisine was egyptian with couscous as an occasional dish  today in egypt and the middle east couscous is known but in morocco algeria tunisia and western libya couscous is a staple  couscous was taken from syria to turkey in 16th century and is eaten in most of southern provinces couscous is a staple of sicilian cuisine  in rome bartolomeo scappis culinary guide of 1570 describes a moorish dish succussu in tuscany  one of the earliest references to couscous in western europe is in brittany in a letter dated 12 january 1699  but it made an earlier appearance in provence where the traveler jean jacques bouchard wrote of eating it in toulon in 1630 properly cooked couscous should be light and fluffy not gummy or gritty steam the couscous two to three times to achieve this consistency  traditionally north africans use a food steamer called a kiskas in arabic or a couscoussire in french the base is a tall metal pot shaped rather like an oil jar in which the meat and vegetables are cooked as a stew   on top of the base a steamer sits where the couscous is cooked absorbing the flavours from the stew the lid to the steamer has holes around its edge so steam can escape it is also possible to use a pot with a steamer insert if the holes are too big the steamer can be lined with damp cheesecloth  there is little archaeological evidence of early diets including couscous possibly because the original couscoussire was probably made from organic materials which could not survive extended exposure to the elements the couscous that is sold in most western supermarkets have been presteamed and dried the package directions usually instruct to add 15 measures of boiling water or stock and butter to each measure of couscous and to cover tightly for 5 minutes the couscous swells and within a few minutes it is ready to fluff with a fork and serve  presteamed couscous takes less time to prepare than regular couscous most dried pasta or dried grains such as rice in libya morocco algeria and tunisia couscous is generally served with vegetables carrots potatoes turnips et al cooked in a spicy or mild broth or stew and some meat generally chicken lamb or mutton in libya it is mostly served with meat specifically beef lamb or camel  in tripoli and the western parts of libya  but not during official ceremonies or weddings  another way to eat couscous is as a dessert it is prepared with dates sesame and pure honey and locally referred to as maghrood in tunisia it is made mostly spicy with harissa sauce it is served with almost everything including lamb beef camel and poultry  fish couscous is tunisian specialty it can be also made with octopus in hot red spicy sauce  couscous in tunisia is served in every occasion it is also made as dessert mostly in ramadan masfouf in morocco and algeria it is also served sometimes at the end of a meal or just by itself as a delicacy called seffa the couscous is usually steamed several times until it is very fluffy and pale in color it is then sprinkled with almonds cinnamon and sugar  traditionally this dessert will be served with milk perfumed with orange flower water or it can be served plain with buttermilk in a bowl as a cold light soup for supper in egypt couscous is eaten more as a dessert it is prepared with butter sugar cinnamon raisins nuts and topped with cream couscous is also very popular in france where it is now considered a traditional dish and has also become popular in spain portugal italy and greece indeed many polls have indicated that it is often a favorite dish   although introduced in france by the pieds noirs people of european descent who used to live in algeria many couscous restaurants are now owned by people originating from algeria in france spain italy and portugal the word couscous cuscs in spanish portuguese and italian usually refers to couscous together with the stew  packaged sets containing a box of quickpreparation couscous and a can of vegetables and generally meat are sold in french spanish italian and portuguese grocery stores and supermarkets  in france it is generally served with harissa sauce and in italy it can be served with marinara sauce in north america australia and the united kingdom couscous is available most commonly as either plain or preflavoured quick preparation boxes  in the united states it is widely available but largely confined to the ethnic or healthfood section of larger grocery stores there are recipes from brazil and other latin american countries that use boiled couscous molded into a timbale with other ingredients  in northeastern brazil cuzcuz a steamed cake of couscous and corn flour a mixture called fub pronounced foobah is a popular meal served in many forms  with sugar and milk with varied meats with cheese and eggs etc  in mexico there are two dishes called the couscous taco taco de cuscs and couscous burrito burrito de cuscs which consists of the addition of couscous to a traditional taco or burrito respectively similar in fashion to a moroccan pita couscous is among the healthiest grainbased products it has a glycemic load per gram 25 below that of pasta it has a superior vitamin profile to pasta containing twice as much riboflavin niacin vitamin b6 and folate and containing four times as much thiamin and pantothenic acid in terms of protein couscous has 36g for every 100 calories equivalent to pasta and well above the 26g for every 100 calories of white rice  furthermore couscous contains a 1 fattocalorie ratio compared to 3 for white rice 5 for pasta and 113 for rice pilaf 
congregationalistpolity congregationalism is not limited only to organization of christian congregations the principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the unitarian universalist association jewish synagogues and most islamic mosques in the us operate under congregational government as well with no hierarchies the term congregationalist polity describes a form of church governance that is based on the local congregation   each local congregation is independent and selfsupporting governed by its own members49  some band into loose voluntary associations with other congregations that share similar beliefs eg the willow creek association the earmarks of congregationalism can be traced back to the pilgrim societies of the united states in the early 17th century  congregationalism expressed the viewpoint that 1 every local church is a full realization in miniature of the entire church of jesus christ and 2 the church while on earth besides the local church can only be invisible and ideal  while other theories may insist on the truth of the former the latter precept of congregationalism gives the entire theory a unique character among plans of church government  there is no other reference than the local congregation for the visible church in congregationalism and yet the connection of all christians is also asserted albeit in a way that defenders of this view usually decline often intentionally to elaborate more clearly or consistently  this first foundational principle by which congregationalism is guided results in confining it to operate with the consent of each gathering of believers although congregational rule may seem to suggest that pure democracy reigns in congregational churches this is seldom the case it is granted with few exceptions namely in some anabaptist churches that god has given the government of the church into the hands of an ordained ministry  what makes congregationalism unique is its system of checks and balances which constrains the authority of the minister the lay officers and the members most importantly the boundaries of the powers of the ministers and church officers are set by clear and constant reminders of the freedoms guaranteed by the gospel to the laity collectively and individually  with that freedom comes the responsibility upon each member to govern himself or herself under christ this requires lay people to exercise great charity and patience in debating issues with one another and to seek the glory and service of god as the foremost consideration in all of their decisions the authority of all of the people including the officers is limited in the local congregation by a definition of union or a covenant by which the terms of their cooperation together are spelled out and agreed to  this might be something as minimal as a charter specifying a handful of doctrines and behavioral expectations or even a statement only guaranteeing specific freedoms  or it may be a constitution describing a comprehensive doctrinal system and specifying terms under which the local church is connected to other local churches to which participating congregations give their assent  in congregationalism rather uniquely the church is understood to be a truly voluntary association finally the congregational theory strictly forbids ministers from ruling their local churches by themselves  not only does the minister serve by the approval of the congregation but committees further constrain the pastor from exercising power without consent by either the particular committee or the entire congregation it is a contradiction of the congregational principle if a minister makes decisions concerning the congregation without the vote of these other officers the other officers may be called deacons elders or session borrowing presbyterian terminology or even vestry borrowing the anglican term  it is not their label that is important to the theory but rather their lay status and their equal vote together with the pastor in deciding the issues of the church  while other forms of church government are more likely to define tyranny as the imposition of unjust rule a congregationallygoverned church would more likely define tyranny as transgression of liberty or equivalently rule by one man  to a congregationalist no abuse of authority is worse than the concentration of all decisive power in the hands of one ruling body or one person following this sentiment congregationalism has evolved over time to include even more participation of the congregation more kinds of lay committees to whom various tasks are apportioned and more decisions subject to the vote of the entire membership one of the most notable characteristics of new england or britishheritage congregationalism has been its consistent leadership role in the formation of unions with other churches  such sentiments especially grew strong in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when ecumenism evolved out of a liberal nonsectarian perspective on relations to other christian groups that accompanied the relaxation of calvinist stringencies held by earlier generations the congregationalist theory of independence within a union has been a cornerstone of most ecumenical movements since the 18th century the congregationalist principles of complete autonomy and strictly voluntary union produce a practically indescribable diversity of beliefs within the congregational unions the united church of christ ucc is the result of a union constructed according to congregationalist theory between the evangelical and reformed church and the congregational christian churches these uniting congregations were themselves the result of several previous unions the general council of congregational christian churches was formed from a merger between the national council of congregational churches and the general convention of the christian church also known as christian churches or christian connection not to be confused with although partially related to the disciples of christ the evangelical and reformed church was the result of a partial union of the reformed church in the united states and the evangelical synod of north america a union of lutherans and reformed the ucc is by far the most diverse of the reformed churches in the us in the united kingdom the united reformed church was formed in 1972 by the merger of the presbyterian and the congregational churches on presbyterian principles of union but within a continuing congregational regard for local diversity most baptists hold that no church or ecclesiastical organization has inherent authority over a baptist church  churches can properly relate to each other under this polity only through voluntary cooperation never by any sort of coercion  furthermore this baptist polity calls for freedom from governmental control exceptions to this local form of local governance include a few churches that submit to the leadership of a body of elders as well as the episcopal baptists that have an episcopal system independent baptist churches have no formal organizational structure above the level of the local congregation   more generally among baptists a variety of parachurch agencies and evangelical educational institutions may be supported generously or not at all depending entirely upon the local congregations customs and predilections  usually doctrinal conformity is held as a first consideration when a church makes a decision to grant or decline financial contributions to such agencies which are legally external and separate from the congregations they serve  these practices also find currency among nondenominational fundamentalist or charismatic fellowships many of which derive from baptist origins culturally if not theologically most southern baptist congregations and africanamerican baptist churches by contrast generally relate more closely to external groups such as mission agencies and educational institutions than do those of independent persuasion  however they adhere to a very similar ecclesiology refusing to permit outside control or oversight of local affairs church government is congregational rather than denominational  churches of christ purposefully have no central headquarters councils or other organizational structure above the local church level214103124  rather the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations see sponsoring church churches of christ  churches of christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders also known in some congregations as shepherds bishops or pastors who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons475455  elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation while deacons are seen as responsible for the nonspiritual needs of the church323335  congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach as well as to perform governance functions298  in lieu of willing men who meet these qualifications congregations are sometimes overseen by the congregations men in general while the early restoration movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than located preachers during the 20th century a longterm formallytrained congregational minister became the norm among churches of christ532 ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders churches of christ hold to the priesthood of all believers   no special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as clergy112113  churches of christ emphasize that there is no distinction between clergy and laity and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church3840 
clitoris name          clitoris  latin          graysubject   270  graypage      1266  image         clitorisanatomylabeledensvg  caption       the internal anatomy of the human vulva with the clitoral hood and labia minora indicated as lines the clitoris extends from the visible portion to a point below the pubic bone  image2         caption2      structures of the female genitalia with the tip of the clitoris visible above the labia minora the pubic hair upon the labia majora has been removed width         180  precursor     genital tubercle  system         artery        dorsal artery of clitoris deep artery of clitoris  vein          superficial dorsal veins of clitoris deep dorsal vein of clitoris  nerve         dorsal nerve of clitoris  lymph          meshname      clitoris  meshnumber    a05360319887436  dorlands      two000021948  dorlandsid    clitoris the clitoris is a sexual organ that is present only in female mammals  in humans the visible buttonlike portion is located near the anterior junction of the labia minora above the opening of the urethra and vagina  unlike the penis which is homologous to the clitoris the clitoris does not contain the distal portion of the urethra the only known exception to this is in the spotted hyena in this species the urogenital system is unique in that the female urinates mates and gives birth via an enlarged erectile clitoris known as a pseudopenis in humans the clitoris is the most sensitive erogenous zone of the female the stimulation of which may produce sexual excitement and clitoral erection its continuing stimulation may produce sexual pleasure in the female and orgasm and is considered the key to females sexual pleasure the word is  or the plural forms are clitorises in english and clitorides in latin in slang it is sometimes abbreviated as clit which originated in the 1950s the oed suggests that the pronunciation klatrs is also used in the uk and gives the likely etymology as coming from the greek  kleitoris perhaps derived from the verb  kleiein to shut the online etymology dictionary states that the etymology of this diminutive is uncertain  possible etymological candidates are a greek word meaning key latch hook a greek verb meaning to touch or titillate lasciviously to tickle the clitoris is called in german slang der kitzler the tickler although this verb is more likely derived from clitoris and a greek word meaning side of a hill from the same root as climax   its latin genitive is clitoridis as in glans clitoridis the head or glans of the clitoris is roughly the size and shape of a pea although it can be significantly larger or smaller name          human vulva  graysubject     graypage        latin          image         vulvalabelednotagsjpg  caption       human vulva stretched to show externallyvisible features of the clitoris in relation to other components 1  clitoral hood prepuce 2  clitoral glans 3  urethral orifice 4  vulval vestibule 5  labia minora 6  vaginal opening 7  labia majora hair removed 8  perineum  width         180  meshname      vulva  meshnumber    a05360319887  dorlands  nine000116925  dorlandsid  vulva the clitoris is a complex structure with both external and internal components  projecting at the front of the labial commissure where the edges of the outer lips labia majora meet at the base of the pubic mound is the clitoral hood prepuce which in full or part covers the head clitoral glans  following from the head back and up along the shaft it is found that this extends up to several centimeters before reversing direction and branching the resulting branched shape forms an inverted v extending as a pair of legs known as the clitoral crura formed of the corpora cavernosa the clitoral crura are concealed behind the labia minora and terminate with attachment to the pubic arch according to some or follow interior to the labia minora to meet at the fourchette according to others associated are the urethral sponge clitoralvestibular bulbs perineal sponge a network of nerves and blood vessels suspensory ligaments muscles and pelvic diaphragm there is considerable variation in how much of the clitoris protrudes from the hood and how much is covered by it ranging from complete covered invisibility to full protruding visibility an article published in the journal of obstetrics and gynecology in july 1992 states that the average width of the clitoral glans lies within the range of convert25 indicating that the average size is smaller than a penciltop eraser  recent discoveries about the size of the clitoris show that clitoral tissue extends some considerable distance inside the body around the vagina it is now clear that clitoral tissue is far more widespread than the small visible part most people associate with the word most women can only achieve orgasm through clitoral stimulation  masters and johnson were the first to determine that the clitoral structures surround and extend along and within the labia determining that all orgasms are of clitoral origin  in 2005 australian urologist dr helen oconnell using mri technology noted a direct relationship between the legs or roots of the clitoris and the erectile tissue of the clitoral bulbs and corpora and the distal urethra and vagina during sexual arousal and during orgasm the clitoris and the whole of the genitalia engorge and change color as these erectile tissues fill with blood and the individual experiences vaginal contractions  masters and johnson documented the sexual response cycle which has four phases and is still the clinically accepted definition of the human orgasm  more recent research has determined that some can experience a sustained intense orgasm through stimulation of the clitoris and remain in the orgasmic phase for much longer than the original studies indicated evidenced by genital engorgement color changes and vaginal contractions during the development of an embryo at the time of development of the urinary and reproductive organs the previously undifferentiated genital tubercle develops into either a clitoris or penis along with all other major organ systems making them homologous the clitoris is formed from the same tissues that would have become the glans and upper shaft of a penis if the embryo had been exposed to male hormones   changes in appearance of male and female embryos begin roughly eight weeks after conception   by birth the genital structures have developed into the female reproductive system embryo sex based on external genitalia is apparent to a doctor at the end of the 14th menstrual week and the sex can usually be identified by an ultrasound after 16 to 18 menstrual weeks a condition that can develop from naturally occurring or deliberate exposure to higher than average levels of testosterone is clitoromegaly the clitoris has been rediscovered repeatedly over the centuries harvey 2001 laqueur 1989  over a period of more than 2500 years some have considered the clitoris and the penis equivalent in all respects except their arrangement  realdo colombo also known as matteo renaldo colombo was a lecturer in surgery at the university of padua italy and in 1559 he published a book called de re anatomica in which he described the seat of womans delight  colombo concluded since no one has discerned these projections and their workings if it is permissible to give names to things discovered by me it should be called the love or sweetness of venus colombos claim was disputed by his successor at padua gabriele falloppio who discovered the fallopian tube who claimed that he was the first to discover the clitoris  caspar bartholin a 17thcentury danish anatomist dismissed both claims arguing that the clitoris had been widely known to medical science since the second century  indeed hippocrates used the term columella little pillar  avicenna named the clitoris the albatra or virga rod  albucasis an arabic medical authority named it tentigo tension it was also known to the romans who named it vulgar slang landica this cycle of suppression and discovery continued notably in the work of regnier de graaf tractatus de virorum organis generationi inservientibus de mulierum organis generationi inservientibus tractatus novus in the 17th century and georg ludwig kobelt die mnnlichen und weiblichen wollustorgane des menschen und einiger sugetiere in the 19th  de graaf criticised columbos claims for this  harvey laqueur the full extent of the clitoris was alluded to by masters and johnson in 1966 but in such a muddled fashion that the significance of their description became obscured  in 1981 the federation of feminist womens health clinics ffwhc continued this process with anatomically precise illustrations the external part of the clitoris may be partially or totally removed during female genital cutting also known as a clitoridectomy female circumcision or female genital mutilation fgm this may be a voluntary or involuntary procedure the topic is highly controversial with many countries condemning the traditions that give rise to involuntary procedures and with some countries outlawing even voluntary procedures  amnesty international estimates that over 2 million involuntary female circumcisions are being performed every year mainly in african countries in various cultures the clitoris is sometimes pierced directly  in us body modification culture it is actually extremely rare for the clitoral shaft itself to be pierced as of the already few people who desire the piercing only a small percentage are anatomically suited for it furthermore most piercing artists are reluctant to attempt such a delicate procedure some styles such as the isabella do pass through the clitoris but are placed deep at the base where they provide unique stimulation they still require the proper genital build but are more common than shaft piercings  additionally what is erroneously referred to as a clit piercing is almost always the much more common and much less complicated clitoral hood piercing enlargement may be intentional or unintentional  those taking hormones andor other medications as part of femaletomale transition usually experience dramatic clitoral growth individual desires and the difficulties of surgical phalloplasty often result in the retention of the original genitalia the enlarged clitoris analogous to a penis as part of the transition  however the clitoris cannot reach the size of most cissexual mens penises through hormones  surgery to add function to the clitoris such as metoidioplasty or clitoral release are alternatives to phalloplasty construction of a penis which permit retention of sexual sensation in the clitoris on the other hand use of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders and other athletes can result in significant enlargement of the clitoris in concert with other masculinizing effects on their bodies  temporary engorgement results from suction pumping practiced to enhance sexual pleasure or for aesthetic purposes 
conservationlaw in physics a conservation law states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves one particularly important physical result concerning conservation laws is noethers theorem which states that there is a onetoone correspondence between conservation laws and differentiable symmetries of physical systems   for example the conservation of energy follows from the timeinvariance of physical systems and the fact that physical systems behave the same regardless of how they are oriented in space gives rise to the conservation of angular momentum a partial listing of conservation laws that are said to be exact laws or more precisely have never been shown to be violated there are also approximate conservation laws   these are approximately true in particular situations such as low speeds short time scales or certain interactions 
controltheory control theory is consider a cars cruise control which is a device designed to maintain a constant vehicle speed with the desired or reference speed provided by the driver the system in this case is the vehicle the system output is the vehicle speed and the control variable is the engines throttle position which influences engine torque output a primitive way to implement cruise control is simply to lock the throttle position when the driver engages cruise control  however on mountain terrain the vehicle will slow down going uphill and accelerate going downhill  in fact any parameter different from what was assumed at design time will translate into a proportional error in the output velocity including exact mass of the vehicle wind resistance and tire pressure  this type of controller is called an openloop controller because there is no direct connection between the output of the system the vehicles speed and the actual conditions encountered that is to say the system does not and can not compensate for unexpected forces in a closedloop control system a sensor monitors the output the vehicles speed and feeds the data to a computer which continuously adjusts the control input the throttle as necessary to keep the control error to a minimum that is to maintain the desired speed  feedback on how the system is actually performing allows the controller vehicles on board computer to dynamically compensate for disturbances to the system such as changes in slope of the ground or wind speed an ideal feedback control system cancels out all errors effectively mitigating the effects of any forces that might or might not arise during operation and producing a response in the system that perfectly matches the users wishes  in reality this cannot be achieved due to measurement errors in the sensors delays in the controller and imperfections in the control input although control systems of various types date back to antiquity a more formal analysis of the field began with a dynamics analysis of the centrifugal governor conducted by the physicist james clerk maxwell in 1868 entitled on governors a notable application of dynamic control was in the area of manned flight the wright brothers made their first successful test flights on december 17 1903 and were distinguished by their ability to control their flights for substantial periods more so than the ability to produce lift from an airfoil which was known  control of the airplane was necessary for safe flight by world war ii control theory was an important part of firecontrol systems guidance systems and electronics the space race also depended on accurate spacecraft control  however control theory also saw an increasing use in fields such as economics many active and historical figures made significant contribution to control theory including for example to avoid the problems of the openloop controller control theory introduces feedback a closedloop controller uses feedback to control states or outputs of a dynamical system  its name comes from the information path in the system process inputs eg voltage applied to an electric motor have an effect on the process outputs eg velocity or torque of the motor which is measured with sensors and processed by the controller the result the control signal is used as input to the process closing the loop closedloop controllers have the following advantages over openloop controllers in some systems closedloop and openloop control are used simultaneously  in such systems the openloop control is termed feedforward and serves to further improve reference tracking performance a common closedloop controller architecture is the pid controller the output of the system yt is fed back through a sensor measurement f to the reference value rt the controller c then takes the error e difference between the reference and the output to change the inputs u to the system under control p this is shown in the figure  this kind of controller is a closedloop controller or feedback controller this is called a singleinputsingleoutput siso control system mimo ie  multiinputmultioutput systems with more than one inputoutput are common  in such cases variables are represented through vectors instead of simple scalar values for some distributed parameter systems the vectors may be infinitedimensional typically functions if we assume the controller c the plant p and the sensor f are linear and timeinvariant ie elements of their transfer function cs ps and fs do not depend on time the systems above can be analysed using the laplace transform on the variables this gives the following relations solving for ys in terms of rs gives the expression hs  fracpscs1  fspscs is referred to as the closedloop transfer function of the system the numerator is the forward openloop gain from r to y and the denominator is one plus the gain in going around the feedback loop the socalled loop gain if pscs gg 1 ie it has a large norm with each value of s and if fs approx 1 then ys is approximately equal to rs  this simply means setting the reference to control the output the pid controller is probably the mostused feedback control design  pid is an acronym for proportionalintegraldifferential referring to the three terms operating on the error signal to produce a control signal if ut is the control signal sent to the system yt is the measured output and rt is the desired output and tracking error etrt yt a pid controller has the general form the desired closed loop dynamics is obtained by adjusting the three parameters  kp  ki and  kd often iteratively by tuning and without specific knowledge of a plant model  stability can often be ensured using only the proportional term the integral term permits the rejection of a step disturbance often a striking specification in process control the derivative term is used to provide damping or shaping of the response  pid controllers are the most well established class of control systems however they cannot be used in several more complicated cases especially if mimo systems are considered applying laplace transformation results in the transformed pid controller equation in contrast to the frequency domain analysis of the classical control theory modern control theory utilizes the timedomain state space representation a mathematical model of a physical system as a set of input output and state variables related by firstorder differential equations  to abstract from the number of inputs outputs and states the variables are expressed as vectors and the differential and algebraic equations are written in matrix form the latter only being possible when the dynamical system is linear the state space representation also known as the timedomain approach provides a convenient and compact way to model and analyze systems with multiple inputs and outputs  with  inputs and outputs we would otherwise have to write down  laplace transforms to encode all the information about a system  unlike the frequency domain approach the use of the state space representation is not limited to systems with linear components and zero initial conditions  state space refers to the space whose axes are the state variables the state of the system can be represented as a vector within that space the stability of a general dynamical system with no input can be described with lyapunov stability criteria a linear system that takes an input is called boundedinput boundedoutput bibo stable if its output will stay bounded for any bounded input  stability for nonlinear systems that take an input is inputtostate stability iss which combines lyapunov stability and a notion similar to bibo stability  for simplicity the following descriptions focus on continuoustime and discretetime linear systems mathematically this means that for a causal linear system to be stable all of the poles of its transfer function must satisfy some criteria depending on whether a continuous or discrete time analysis is used when the appropriate conditions above are satisfied a system is said to be asymptotically stable the variables of an asymptotically stable control system always decrease from their initial value and do not show permanent oscillations  permanent oscillations occur when a pole has a real part exactly equal to zero in the continuous time case or a modulus equal to one in the discrete time case if a simply stable system response neither decays nor grows over time and has no oscillations it is marginally stable in this case the system transfer function has nonrepeated poles at complex plane origin ie their real and complex component is zero in the continuous time case  oscillations are present when poles with real part equal to zero have an imaginary part not equal to zero differences between the two cases are not a contradiction the laplace transform is in cartesian coordinates and the ztransform is in circular coordinates and it can be shown that if a system in question has an impulse response of however if the impulse response was numerous tools exist for the analysis of the poles of a system  these include graphical systems like the root locus bode plots or the nyquist plots mechanical changes can make equipment and control systems more stable  sailors add ballast to improve the stability of ships  cruise ships use antiroll fins that extend transversely from the side of the ship for perhaps 30 feet 10 m and are continuously rotated about their axes to develop forces that oppose the roll controllability and observability are main issues in the analysis of a system before deciding the best control strategy to be applied or whether it is even possible to control or stabilize the system  controllability is related to the possibility of forcing the system into a particular state by using an appropriate control signal if a state is not controllable then no signal will ever be able to control the state if a state is not controllable but its dynamics are stable then the state is termed stabilizable observability instead is related to the possibility of observing through output measurements the state of a system if a state is not observable the controller will never be able to determine the behaviour of an unobservable state and hence cannot use it to stabilize the system  however similar to the stabilizability condition above if a state cannot be observed it might still be detectable from a geometrical point of view looking at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled every bad state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behaviour in the closedloop system  that is if one of the eigenvalues of the system is not both controllable and observable this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closedloop system if such an eigenvalue is not stable the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the closedloop system which therefore will be unstable  unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a statespace representation which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis solutions to problems of uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors several different control strategies have been devised in the past years  these vary from extremely general ones pid controller to others devoted to very particular classes of systems especially robotics or aircraft cruise control a control problem can have several specifications  stability of course is always present the controller must ensure that the closedloop system is stable regardless of the openloop stability a poor choice of controller can even worsen the stability of the openloop system which must normally be avoided  sometimes it would be desired to obtain particular dynamics in the closed loop ie that the poles have relambda  where overlinelambda is a fixed value strictly greater than zero instead of simply asking that relambda another typical specification is the rejection of a step disturbance including an integrator in the openloop chain ie directly before the system under control easily achieves this  other classes of disturbances need different types of subsystems to be included other classical control theory specifications regard the timeresponse of the closedloop system these include the rise time the time needed by the control system to reach the desired value after a perturbation peak overshoot the highest value reached by the response before reaching the desired value and others settling time quarterdecay  frequency domain specifications are usually related to robustness see after modern performance assessments use some variation of integrated tracking error iaeisacqi a control system must always have some robustness property a robust controller is such that its properties do not change much if applied to a system slightly different from the mathematical one used for its synthesis  this specification is important no real physical system truly behaves like the series of differential equations used to represent it mathematically  typically a simpler mathematical model is chosen in order to simplify calculations otherwise the true system dynamics can be so complicated that a complete model is impossible the process of determining the equations that govern the models dynamics is called system identification  this can be done offline for example executing a series of measures from which to calculate an approximated mathematical model typically its transfer function or matrix  such identification from the output however cannot take account of unobservable dynamics  sometimes the model is built directly starting from known physical equations for example in the case of a massspringdamper system we know that  m ddott   k xt  beta dotxt  even assuming that a complete model is used in designing the controller all the parameters included in these equations called nominal parameters are never known with absolute precision the control system will have to behave correctly even when connected to physical system with true parameter values away from nominal some advanced control techniques include an online identification process see later the parameters of the model are calculated identified while the controller itself is running in this way if a drastic variation of the parameters ensues for example if the robots arm releases a weight the controller will adjust itself consequently in order to ensure the correct performance analysis of the robustness of a siso control system can be performed in the frequency domain considering the systems transfer function and using nyquist and bode diagrams  topics include gain and phase margin and amplitude margin  for mimo and in general more complicated control systems one must consider the theoretical results devised for each control technique see next section ie if particular robustness qualities are needed the engineer must shift his attention to a control technique including them in its properties a particular robustness issue is the requirement for a control system to perform properly in the presence of input and state constraints  in the physical world every signal is limited it could happen that a controller will send control signals that cannot be followed by the physical system for example trying to rotate a valve at excessive speed  this can produce undesired behavior of the closedloop system or even break actuators or other subsystems  specific control techniques are available to solve the problem model predictive control see later and antiwind up systems the latter consists of an additional control block that ensures that the control signal never exceeds a given threshold for mimo systems pole placement can be performed mathematically using a state space representation of the openloop system and calculating a feedback matrix assigning poles in the desired positions  in complicated systems this can require computerassisted calculation capabilities and cannot always ensure robustness  furthermore all system states are not in general measured and so observers must be included and incorporated in pole placement design processes in industries like robotics and the aerospace industry typically have strong nonlinear dynamics  in control theory it is sometimes possible to linearize such classes of systems and apply linear techniques but in many cases it can be necessary to devise from scratch theories permitting control of nonlinear systems  these eg feedback linearization backstepping  sliding mode control trajectory linearization control normally take advantage of results based on lyapunovs theory  differential geometry has been widely used as a tool for generalizing wellknown linear control concepts to the nonlinear case as well as showing the subtleties that make it a more challenging problem when the system is controlled by multiple controllers the problem is one of decentralized control  decentralization is helpful in many ways for instance it helps control systems operate over a larger geographical area the agents in decentralized control systems can interact using communication channels and coordinate their actions every control system must guarantee first the stability of the closedloop behavior  for linear systems this can be obtained by directly placing the poles  nonlinear control systems use specific theories normally based on aleksandr lyapunovs theory to ensure stability without regard to the inner dynamics of the system the possibility to fulfill different specifications varies from the model considered and the control strategy chosen  here a summary list of the main control techniques is shown 
commonwealthofengland the commonwealth of england was the republic which ruled first england and then ireland and scotland from 1649 to 1660  between 16531659 it was known as the commonwealth of england scotland and ireland after the english civil war and the execution of charles i the republics existence was initially declared by an act declaring england to be a commonwealth by the rump parliament on 19 may 1649  executive power had already been entrusted to a council of state the government during 1653 to 1659 is properly called the protectorate and took the form of direct personal rule by oliver cromwell and after his death his son richard as lord protector this arrangement led to the state being labelled a crowned republic the term commonwealth is however loosely used to describe the system of government during the whole of 1649 to 1660 when england was de facto and arguably de jure a republic or to monarchists under the english interregnum the rump was created by prides purge of those members of the long parliament who did not support the political position of the grandees in the new model army just before and after the execution of king charles i on 30 january 1649 the rump passed a number of acts of parliament creating the legal basis for the republic  with the abolition of the monarchy privy council and the house of lords it had unchecked executive as well as legislative power the council of state which replaced the privy council took over many of the executive functions of the monarchy it was selected by the rump and most of its members were mps ultimately however the rump depended on the support of the army with which it had a very uneasy relationship in prides purge all mps including most of the political presbyterians who would not accept the need to bring the king to trial had been removed  thus the rump never had more than 200 members less than half the number of the commons in the original long parliament they included supporters of religious independents who did not want an established church and some of whom had sympathies with the levellers presbyterians who were willing to countenance the trial and execution of the king and later admissions such as formerly excluded mps who were prepared to denounce the newport treaty negotiations with the king most rumpers were gentry though there was a higher proportion of lesser gentry and lawyers than in previous parliaments   less than onequarter of them were regicides  this left the rump basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made them unlikely to want to reform these for the first two years of the commonwealth the rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from scotland and ireland by 1653 cromwell and the army had largely eliminated these threats there were many disagreements amongst factions of the rump some wanted a republic but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government  most of englands traditional ruling classes regarded the rump as an illegal government made up of regicides and upstarts  however they were also aware that the rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright military dictatorship  high taxes mainly to pay the army were resented by the gentry  limited reforms were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals despite its unpopularity the rump was a link with the old constitution and helped to settle england down and make it secure after the biggest upheaval in its history  by 1653 both france and spain had recognised englands new government though the church of england was retained episcopacy was suppressed and the act of uniformity was repealed in 1650  mainly on the insistence of the army many independent churches were tolerated although everyone still had to pay tithes to the established church some small improvements were made to law and court procedure for example all court proceedings were now conducted in english rather than in law french or latin however there were no widespread reforms of the common law this would have upset the gentry who regarded the common law as reinforcing their status and property rights the rump passed many restrictive moral laws to regulate peoples behaviour such as closing down theatres and requiring strict observance of sunday  this antagonised most of the gentry cromwell aided by thomas harrison forcibly dismissed the rump on 20 april 1653 for reasons that are unclear  theories are that he feared the rump was trying to perpetuate itself as the government or that the rump was preparing for an election which could return an anticommonwealth majority  many former members of the rump continued to regard themselves as englands only legitimate constitutional authority the rump had not agreed to its own dissolution when it was dispersed by cromwell and legislation from the period immediately before the civil war the act against dissolving the long parliament without its own consent 11 may 1641 gave them the legal basis for this view the dissolution of the rump was followed by a short period in which cromwell and the army ruled alone  nobody had the constitutional authority to call an election but cromwell did not want to impose a military dictatorship  instead he ruled through a nominated assembly which he believed would be easy for the army to control since army officers did the nominating barebones parliament was opposed by former rumpers and ridiculed by many gentry as being an assembly of inferior people  however over 110 of its 140 members were lesser gentry or of higher social status an exception was praisegod barbon a baptist merchant after whom the assembly got its derogatory nickname many were well educated the assembly reflected the range of views of the officers who nominated it the radicals approximately 40 included a hard core of fifth monarchists who wanted to be rid of common law and any state control of religion the moderates approximately 60 wanted some improvements within the existing system and might move to either the radical or conservative side depending on the issue the conservatives approximately 40 wanted to keep the status quo since common law protected the interests of the gentry and tithes and advowsons were valuable property cromwell saw barebones parliament as a temporary legislative body which he hoped would produce reforms and develop a constitution for the commonwealth however members were divided over key issues only 25 had previous parliamentary experience and although many had some legal training there were no qualified lawyers cromwell seems to have expected this group of amateurs to produce reform without management or direction  when the radicals mustered enough support to defeat a bill which would have preserved the status quo in religion the conservatives together with many moderates surrendered their authority back to cromwell who sent soldiers to clear the rest of the assembly  barebones parliament was over in 1653 cromwell established his protectorate making himself a kinglike figure until the year of his death in 1658 the protectorate might have continued if cromwells son richard who was made lord protector on his fathers death had been capable of carrying on his fathers policies  richard cromwells main weakness was that he did not have the confidence of the new model army after seven months the grandees in the new model army army removed him and on 6 may 1659 they reinstalled the rump parliament charles fleetwood was appointed a member of the committee of safety and of the council of state and one of the seven commissioners for the army  on 9 june he was nominated lordgeneral commanderinchief of the army  however his power was undermined in parliament which chose to disregard the armys authority in a similar fashion to the precivil war parliament the commons on 12 october 1659 cashiered general john lambert and other officers and installed fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the speaker the next day lambert ordered that the doors of the house be shut and the members kept out  on 26 october a committee of safety was appointed of which fleetwood and lambert were members  lambert was appointed majorgeneral of all the forces in england and scotland fleetwood being general  lambert was now sent by the committee of safety with a large force to meet george monck who was in command of the english forces in scotland and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms it was into this atmosphere that general george monck governor of scotland under the cromwells marched south with his army from scotland lamberts army began to desert him and he returned to london almost alone  on 21 february 1660 monck reinstated the presbyterian members of the long parliament secluded by pride so that they could prepare legislation for a new parliament  fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer for his conduct  on 3 march lambert was sent to the tower from which he escaped a month later  lambert tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the commonwealth by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the good old cause to rally on the battlefield of edgehill but he was recaptured by colonel richard ingoldsby a regicide who hoped to win a pardon by handing lambert over to the new regime the long parliament dissolved itself on 16 march on 4 april 1660 charles ii issued the declaration of breda which made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of england monck organised the convention parliament which met for the first time on 25 april  on 8 may it proclaimed that king charles ii had been the lawful monarch since the execution of charles i in january 1649  charles returned from exile on 23 may he entered london on 29 may his birthday  to celebrate his majestys return to his parliament may 29 was made a public holiday popularly known as oak apple day he was crowned at westminster abbey on 23 april 1661 parliament had to a large degree encouraged the radical political groups which emerged when the usual social controls broke down during the english civil war it had also unwittingly established a new political force when it set up the new model army not surprisingly all these groups had their own hopes for the new commonwealth led by john lilburne levellers drew their main support from london and the army in the agreement of the people 1649 they asked for a more representative and accountable parliament to meet every two years a reform of law so it would be available to and fair to all and religious toleration  though they wanted a more democratic society their proposed franchise did not extend to women or to the lowest orders of society levellers saw the rump as little better than the monarchy it had replaced and they showed their displeasure in demonstrations pamphlets and mutinies  while their numbers did not pose a serious threat to the government they scared the rump into action and a treasons act was passed against them in 1649 led by gerrard winstanley diggers wanted an even more equal society than the levellers they advocated a lifestyle that bore many similarities to later understandings of communism with communal ownership of land and absolute equality for males and females in law and education they existed in only very small numbers and faced a very strong opposition even from the levellers the breakdown of religious uniformity and incomplete presbyterian settlement of 1646 enabled independent churches to flourish the main sects see also english dissenters were baptists who advocated adult rebaptism ranters who claimed that sin did not exist for the chosen ones and fifth monarchy men who opposed all earthly governments believing they must prepare for gods kingdom on earth by establishing a government of saints despite greater toleration extreme sects were opposed by the upper classes as they were seen as a threat to social order and property rights catholics were also excluded from the toleration applied to the other groups conservatives were still dominant in both central government and local government  in the former the rump was anxious not to offend the traditional ruling class whose support it needed for survival so it opposed radical ideas  in the latter that ruling class dominated through the influence of traditional regional gentry 
creed a creed is a statement of beliefusually religious belief or faithoften recited as part of a religious service the word derives from the credo for i believe because the latin translation of the apostles creed and the nicene creed both begin with this word a creed is sometimes referred to as a symbol  smbolon signifying a token by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other one of the most widely used creeds in christianity is the nicene creed formulated in ad 325 at the first council of nicaea affirmation of this creed which describes the trinity is generally taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy for most christian denominations the apostles creed is also broadly accepted some christian denominations and other groups have rejected the authority of those creeds whether judaism is creedal has been a point of some controversy  though some say judaism is noncreedal in nature others say it recognizes a single creed the shema hear o israel the lord is our god the lord is one muslims declare the shahada or testimony  i bear witness that there is no god but god and that muhammad is his messenger the terms creed and faith are sometimes used to mean religion  where creed appears alongside religion or faith it can also refer to a persons political or social beliefs for example the americans creed pope paul vi published on june 30 1968 a profession of faith or creed called the credo of the people of god the apostles creed is widely used by a number of christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes most visibly by liturgical churches of western tradition including the latin rite of the roman catholic church lutheranism the anglican communion and western orthodoxy it is also used by presbyterians methodists and congregationalists the nicene creed reflects the concerns of the first council of nicaea in 325 which had as their chief purpose to establish what the early christians believed in an atmosphere of increasingly complicated theological controversy orthodox belief might become more complicated in outline  in the decade before 594 gregory bishop of tours set out to write a history of the franks in gaul a part of europe that had been recently beset with both royal arians and pagans until the conversion of clovis gregory prefaced his history with a declaration of his faith so that my reader may have no doubt that i am catholic for they are the confession is in many phrases each of which refutes a specific christian heresy  thus gregorys creed presents in the negative a virtual litany of heresies some christian denominations and particularly those descending from the radical reformation do not profess a creed the quakers formally known as the religious society of friends find no need for creedal formulations of faith the church of the brethren also espouses no creed referring to the new testament as their rule of faith and practice  jehovahs witnesses contrast memorizing or repeating creeds with acting to do what jesus said  unitarian universalists who practice probably the most liberal of all religions do not share a creed many evangelical protestants similarly reject creeds as definitive statements faith even while agreeing with some creeds substance the baptists have been noncreedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one anotherp111 while many baptists are not opposed to the ancient creeds they regard them as not so final that they cannot be revised and reexpressed  at best creeds have a penultimacy about them and of themselves could never be the basis of christian fellowship similar reservations about the use of creeds can be found in the restoration movement and its descendants the christian church disciples of christ the churches of christ and the independent christian churcheschurches of christ some religious leaders in traditional creedal churches have also come to question the utility of creeds  bishop john shelby spong retired episcopal bishop of newark has written that dogmas and creeds were merely a stage in our development and part of our religious childhood  in his book sins of the scripture spong claims that jesus seemed to understand that no one can finally fit the holy god into his or her creeds or doctrines  that is idolatry whether judaism is creedal in character has generated some controversy  rabbi milton steinberg wrote that by its nature judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought and asserted in his book basic judaism 1947 that judaism has never arrived at a creed the 1976 centenary platform of the central conference of american rabbis an organization of reform rabbis agrees that judaism emphasizes action rather than creed as the primary expression of a religious life others however characterize the shema yisrael as a creedal statement in strict monotheism embodied in a single prayer  hear o israel the lord is our god the lord is one       transliterated shema yisrael adonai eloheinu adonai echad it is recited twice daily by all observant jews once when waking up and once when going to bed the islamic creed is the shahadah the proclamation        l ilha illallh muammadur raslullh  there is no god but allah and muhammad is his messenger taking this creed is one of the five pillars of islam other notable creeds include the 
communistpartyofthesovietunion the communist party of the soviet union     kommunisticheskaya partiya sovetskogo soyuza short  kpss was the only legal ruling political party in the soviet union and one of the largest communist organizations in the world it lost its dominance in the wake of the failed august 1991 coup dtat attempt led by communist hardliners it emerged from the bolshevik faction of the russian social democratic labour party under the leadership of vladimir lenin the party led the 1917 october revolution that overthrew the russian provisional government and established the worlds first socialist state  given the central role under the constitution of the soviet union the party controlled all tiers of government in the soviet union and did not tolerate any opposition  its organization was subdivided into communist parties of the constituent soviet republics as well as the mass youth organization komsomol the party was also the driving force of communist international the party ceased to exist with the 1991 soviet coup dtat attempt failure in 1991 and was succeeded by the communist party of the russian federation in russia and the communist parties of the nowindependent former soviet republics the governing body of the cpsu was the party congress which was held once in 15 years depending on the historical period with an exception of a long break from 1939 to 1952  party congresses would elect a central committee which in turn would elect a politburo in 1952 the title of general secretary became first secretary and the politburo became the presidium before reverting to their former names under leonid brezhnev in 1966 in theory supreme power in the party was invested in the party congress however in practice all executive power was in the hands of the general secretary at lower levels the organizational hierarchy was managed by party committees or partkoms  a partkom was headed by the elected partkom bureau secretary partkom secretary   at enterprises institutions kolkhozes etc they were called as such ie partkoms  at higher levels the committees were abbreviated accordingly raikoms  at raion level obkoms  at oblast levels known earlier as gubkoms  for guberniyas gorkom  at city level etc the bottom level of the party was the primary party organization    or party cell   it was created within any organizational entity of any kind where there were at least three communists the management of a cell was called party bureau    a partbureau was headed by the elected bureau secretary   at smaller party cells secretaries were regular employees of the corresponding factoryhospitalschooletc  sufficiently large party organizations were usually headed by an exempt secretary   who drew his salary from the party money during the 1970s the relative number of communists in republics of the soviet union was as follows membership in the party ultimately became a privilege with a small subset of the general population of party becoming an elite class or nomenklatura in soviet society  nomenklatura enjoyed many perquisites denied to the average soviet citizen  among those perks were shopping at wellstocked stores access to foreign merchandise preference in obtaining housing access to dachas and holiday resorts being allowed to travel abroad sending their children to prestigious universities and obtaining prestigious jobs as well as party membership itself for their children it became virtually impossible to join the soviet ruling and managing elite without being a member of the communist party membership had its risks however especially in the 1930s when the party was subjected to purges under joseph stalin membership in the party was not open  to become a party member one had to be approved by various committees and ones past was closely scrutinised  as generations grew up never having known anything but the ussr party membership became something one generally achieved after passing a series of stages  children would join the young pioneers and then at the age of 14 may graduate to the komsomol young communist league and ultimately as an adult if one had shown the proper adherence to party discipline or had the right connections one would become a member of the communist party itself  however membership also had its obligations  komsomol and cpsu members were expected not only to pay dues but also to carry out appropriate assignments and social tasks   in 1918 it had a membership of approximately 200000  in the late 1920s under stalin the party engaged in a heavy recruitment campaign the lenin levy of new members from both the working class and rural areas  this was both an attempt to proletarianize the party and an attempt by stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the old bolsheviks and reducing their influence in the party by 1933 the party had approximately 35 million members but as a result of the great purge party membership was cut down to 19 million by 1939   in 1986 the communist party of the soviet union had over 19 million members or approximately 10 of the ussrs adult population  over 44 of party members were classified as industrial workers 12 were collective farmers the cpsu had party organizations in fourteen of the ussrs 15 republics  in the russian soviet federative socialist republic itself there was no separate communist party until 1990 as affairs were controlled directly by the cpsu in 1989 gorbachev allowed other political associations de facto political parties to coexist with the communist party and in 1990 obtained the repeal of article six of the ussr constitution which gave the party supremacy over all institutions in society thus ending its vanguard status the communist partys power over the state formally ended that same year with the newlycreated soviet presidency whose first and only president was party general secretary gorbachev the growing likelihood of the dissolution of the ussr itself led hardline elements in the cpsu to launch the august coup in 1991 which temporarily removed gorbachev from power  on august 19 1991 a day before the new union treaty was to be signed devolving power to the republics a group calling itself the state emergency committee seized power in moscow declaring that gorbachev was ill and therefore relieved of his position as president  soviet vicepresident gennadiy yanayev was named acting president the committees eight members included kgb chairman vladimir kryuchkov internal affairs minister boris pugo defense minister dmitriy yazov and prime minister valentin pavlov the coup dissolved because of large public demonstrations and the efforts of boris yeltsin who became the real power in russia as a result  gorbachev returned to moscow as president but resigned as general secretary and vowed to purge the party of hardliners  yeltsin had the cpsu formally banned within the russian sfsr on august 26  the kgb was disbanded as were other cpsurelated agencies and organisations  yeltsins action was later declared unconstitutional but by this time the ussr had ceased to exist the communist party in between gorbachevs resignation and its suspension was politically impotent  by the time of the 28th congress of the cpsu in july 1990 the party was largely regarded as being unable to lead the country and had in fifteen republics split into opposing factions favouring either independent republics or the continuation of the soviet union stripped of its leading role in society the party lost its authority to lead the nation or the cohesion that kept the party united  its last general secretary was vladimir ivashko chosen on august 24 1991  actual political power lay in the positions of president of the soviet union held by gorbachev and president of the russian sfsr held by yeltsin ivashko remained for five days as acting general secretary until august 29 when the partys activity was suspended by the supreme soviet of the soviet union archives of the party are now preserved in a number of russian state archives archive of the president of the russian federation russian state archive of contemporary history russian state archive of sociopolitical history state archive of the russian federation many of them remain classified after the collapse of the soviet union russian adherents to the cpsu tradition particularly as it existed before gorbachev reorganised themselves as the communist party of the russian federation today there are many parties in russia claiming to be the successors of cpsu several of them used the name cpsu however cprf is generally seen because of its large size as the inheritor of the cpsu in russia in other republics communists established the armenian communist party communist party of azerbaijan party of communists of kyrgyzstan communist party of ukraine party of communists of belarus party of communists of the republic of moldova communist party of kazakhstan and the communist party of tajikistan along with the cprf these parties formed the union of communist parties  communist party of the soviet union 
casimiriiithegreat born in kowal casimir the great first married anna or aldona ona the daughter of the prince of lithuania gediminas the daughters from this marriage were cunigunde d 1357 who was married to louis vi the roman the son of louis iv holy roman emperor and elisabeth who was married to duke bogislaus v of pomerania aldona died in 1339 and kazimierz then married adelaide of hesse he divorced adelheid in 1356 married christina divorced her and while adelaide and possibly also christina were still alive ca 1365 married hedwig jadwiga of gogw and sagan his three daughters by his fourth wife were very young and regarded as of dubious legitimacy because of their fathers bigamy  because all of the five children he fathered with his first and fourth wife were daughters he would have no lawful male heir to his throne when casimir the last piast king of poland died in 1370 his nephew king louis i of hungary succeeded him to become king of poland in personal union with hungary casimir is the only polish king who both received and kept the title of great in polish history boleslaw i chrobry is also called the great but his title chrobry valiant is now more common  when he received the crown his hold on it was in danger as even his neighbours did not recognise his title and instead called him king of krakw the economy was ruined and the country was depopulated and exhausted by war  upon his death he left a country doubled in size mostly through the addition of land in todays ukraine then the duchy of halicz prosperous wealthy and with great prospects for the future  although he is depicted as a peaceful king in childrens books he in fact waged many victorious wars and was readying for others just before he died casimir the great built many new castles reformed the polish army and polish civil and criminal law  at the sejm in wilica  11 march 1347 he introduced salutary legal reforms in the jurisprudence of his country he sanctioned a code of laws for great and lesser poland which gained for him the title of the polish justinian and founded the university of krakw which is the oldest polish university although his death temporarily stalled the universitys development which is why it is today called the jagiellonian rather than casimirian university he organized a meeting of kings at krakw 1364 in which he exhibited the wealth of the polish kingdom in order to enlist the support of the nobility especially the military help of pospolite ruszenie casimir was forced to give up important privileges to their caste which made them finally clearly dominant over townsfolk burghers or mieszczastwo in 1335 in the treaty of trentschin kazimierz relinquished in perpetuity his claims to silesia in 1355 in buda casimir designated louis i of hungary as his successor  in exchange the szlachtas tax burden was reduced and they would no longer be required to pay for military expeditions expenses outside poland those important concessions would eventually lead to the ultimately crippling rise of the unique nobles democracy in the polishlithuanian commonwealth his second daughter elisabeth duchess of pomerania bore a son in 1351 casimir iv of pomerania he was slated to become the heir but did not succeed to the throne dying childless in 1377 7 years after king casimir he was the only male descendant of king casimir who lived during his lifetime also his soninlaw louis vi the roman of bavaria margrave and princeelector of brandenburg was thought as a possible successor as king of poland however he was not deemed eligible as his wife casimirs daughter cunigunde had died already in 1357 without children the poles repulsed many raids of the tatarmongols however casimir iii the great submitted to the golden horde and undertook to pay tribute in order to avoid more conflicts the 7 mongol princes were sent by jani beg khan to assist poland casimir had no legitimate sons  apparently he deemed his own descendants either unsuitable or too young to inherit  thus and in order to provide a clear line of succession and avoid dynastic uncertainty he arranged for his nephew king louis i of hungary to be his successor in poland louis was proclaimed king on casimirs death in 1370 and casimirs sister elisabeth louiss mother held much of the real power until her death in 1380 king casimir was favorably disposed toward jews on 9 october 1334 he confirmed the privileges granted to jewish poles in 1264 by bolesaw v the chaste under penalty of death he prohibited the kidnapping of jewish children for the purpose of enforced christian baptism he inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of jewish cemeteries although jews had lived in poland since before the reign of king casimir he allowed them to settle in poland in great numbers and protected them as people of the king on 30 april or 16 october 1325 casimir married aldona of lithuania she was a daughter of gediminas of lithuania and jewna they had two children aldona died on 26 may 1339  casimir remained a widower for two years on 29 september 1341 casimir married his second wife adelheid of hesse she was a daughter of henry ii landgrave of hesse and elisabeth of meissen her maternal grandparents were frederick i margrave of meissen and his second wife elizabeth of lobdeburgarnshaugk they had no children casimir started living separately from adelheid soon after their marriage  their loveless marriage lasted until 1356 casimir effectively divorced adelheid and married his mistress christina christina was the widow of miklusz rokiczani a wealthy merchant  her own origins are unknown  following the death of her first husband she had entered the court of bohemia in prague as a ladyinwaiting  casimir brought her with him from prague and convinced the abbot of the benedictine abbey of tyniec to marry them the marriage was held in a secret ceremony but soon became known  adelheid renounced it as bigamous and returned to hesse without permission casimir continued living with christine despite complains by pope innocent vi on behalf of adelheid the marriage lasted until 13631364 when casimir again declared himself divorced they had no children in about 1365 casimir married his fourth wife hedwig of aga she was a daughter of henry v of iron duke of aga and anna of mazovia they had three children with adelheid still alive and christine possibly surviving the marriage to hedwig was also considered bigamous the legitimacy of the three last daughters was disputed  casimir managed to have anne and cunigunde legitimated by pope urban v on 5 december 1369  hedwig the younger was legitimated by pope gregory xi on 11 october 1371 casimir also had three illegitimate sons by his mistress cudka wife of a castellan kazimirus di gra rex poloniae 
christianpersecution more generally see 
criticaltheory in the sociological context critical theory refers to a style of marxist theory with a tendency to engage with nonmarxist influences for instance the work of friedrich nietzsche and sigmund freud this tendency has been referred to pejoratively by stricter marxists as revisionism  modern critical theory arose from a trajectory extending from the nonpositivist sociology of max weber and georg simmel the neomarxist theory of georg lukcs and antonio gramsci toward the milieu associated with frankfurt institute of social research it is with the socalled frankfurt school of theorists that the term is most commonly associated  herbert marcuse theodor adorno max horkheimer walter benjamin and jrgen habermas with the latter critical theory shed further its roots in german idealism and moved closer to american pragmatism the theoretical concern for a cultural superstructure derived from a material base often stands as the only central marxist tenet remaining in contemporary critical theory the two meanings of critical theoryfrom different intellectual traditions associated with the meaning of criticism and critiquederive ultimately from the greek word kritikos meaning judgment or discernment and in their present forms go back to the 18th century  while they can be considered completely independent intellectual pursuits increasingly scholars are interested in the areas of critique where the two overlap to use an epistemological distinction introduced by jrgen habermas in erkenntnis und interesse 1968 knowledge and human interests critical theory in literary studies is ultimately a form of hermeneutics ie knowledge via interpretation to understand the meaning of human texts and symbolic expressionsincluding the interpretation of texts which are themselves implicitly or explicitly the interpretation of other texts  critical social theory is in contrast a form of selfreflective knowledge involving both understanding and theoretical explanation to reduce entrapment in systems of domination or dependence obeying the emancipatory interest in expanding the scope of autonomy and reducing the scope of domination from this perspective much literary critical theory since it is focused on interpretation and explanation rather than on social transformation would be regarded as positivistic or traditional rather than critical theory in the kantian or marxian sense  critical theory in literature and the humanities in general does not necessarily involve a normative dimension whereas critical social theory does either through criticizing society from some general theory of values norms or oughts or through criticizing it in terms of its own espoused values core concepts are 1 that critical social theory should be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity ie how it came to be configured at a specific point in time and 2 that critical theory should improve understanding of society by integrating all the major social sciences including geography economics sociology history political science anthropology and psychology this version of critical theory derives from kants 18thcentury and marxs 19th century use of the term critique as in kants critique of pure reason and marxs concept that his work das kapital capital forms a critique of political economy  for kants transcendental idealism critique means examining and establishing the limits of the validity of a faculty type or body of knowledge especially through accounting for the limitations imposed by the fundamental irreducible concepts in use in that knowledge system  early on kants notion associated critique with the disestablishment of false unprovable or dogmatic philosophical social and political beliefs because kants critique of reason involved the critique of dogmatic theological and metaphysical ideas and was intertwined with the enhancement of ethical autonomy and the enlightenment critique of superstition and irrational authority  marx explicitly developed this notion into the critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of social revolution as in the famous 11th of his theses on feuerbach philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways the point is to change it one of the distinguishing characteristics of critical theory as adorno and horkheimer elaborated in their dialectic of enlightenment 1947 is a certain ambivalence concerning the ultimate source or foundation of social domination an ambivalence which gave rise to the pessimism of the new critical theory over the possibility of human emancipation and freedom  this ambivalence was rooted of course in the historical circumstances in which the work was originally produced in particular the rise of national socialism state capitalism and mass culture as entirely new forms of social domination that could not be adequately explained within the terms of traditional marxist sociology for adorno and horkheimer state intervention in the economy had effectively abolished the tension in capitalism between the relations of production and material productive forces of society a tension which according to traditional critical theory constituted the primary contradiction within capitalism the market as an unconscious mechanism for the distribution of goods and private property had been replaced by centralized planning and socialized ownership of the means of production yet contrary to marxs famous prediction in the preface to a contribution to the critique of political economy this shift did not lead to an era of social revolution but rather to fascism and totalitarianism  as such critical theory was left in jrgen habermas words without anything in reserve to which it might appeal and when the forces of production enter into a baneful symbiosis with the relations of production that they were supposed to blow wide open there is no longer any dynamism upon which critique could base its hope  for adorno and horkheimer this posed the problem of how to account for the apparent persistence of domination in the absence of the very contradiction that according to traditional critical theory was the source of domination itself in the 1960s jrgen habermas raised the epistemological discussion to a new level in his knowledge and human interests by identifying critical knowledge as based on principles that differentiated it either from the natural sciences or the humanities through its orientation to selfreflection and emancipation  though unsatisfied with adorno and horkeimers thought presented in dialectic of enlightenment habermas shares the view that in the form of instrumental rationality the era of modernity marks a move away from the liberation of enlightenment and toward a new form of enslavement his ideas regarding the relationship between modernity and rationalization are in this sense strongly influenced by max weber habermas dissolved further the elements of critical theory derived from hegelian german idealism though his thought remains broadly marxist in its epistemological approach  perhaps his two most influential ideas are the concepts of the public sphere and communicative action the latter arriving partly as a reaction to new poststructural or socalled postmodern challenges to the discourse of modernity  habermas engaged in regular correspondence with richard rorty and a strong sense of philosophical pragmatism may be felt in his theory thought which frequently traverses the boundaries between sociology and philosophy while modernist critical theory as described above concerns itself with forms of authority and injustice that accompanied the evolution of industrial and corporate capitalism as a politicaleconomic system postmodern critical theory politicizes social problems by situating them in historical and cultural contexts to implicate themselves in the process of collecting and analyzing data and to relativize their findings lindlof  taylor 2002 p52  meaning itself is seen as unstable due to the rapid transformation in social structures and as a result the focus of research is centered on local manifestations rather than broad generalizations postmodern critical research is also characterized by what is called the crisis of representation which rejects the idea that a researchers work is considered an objective depiction of a stable other lindlof  taylor 2002 p53  instead in their research and writing many postmodern scholars have adopted alternatives that encourage reflection about the politics and poetics of their work  in these accounts the embodied collaborative dialogic and improvisational aspects of qualitative research are clarified lindlof  taylor 2002 p53 often the term critical theory is appropriated when an author perhaps most notably michel foucault works within sociological terms yet attacks the social or human sciences thus attempting to remain outside those frames of enquiry  jean baudrillard has also been described as a critical theorist to the extent that he was an unconventional and critical sociologist this appropriation is similarly casual holding little or no relation to the frankfurt school the second meaning of critical theory is the theory used in literary criticism and in the analysis and understanding of literature  this is discussed in greater detail under literary theory  this form of critical theory is not necessarily oriented toward radical social change or even toward the analysis of society but instead focuses on the analysis of texts  this term was first used by literary scholars in the 1960s and 1970s and the term has only come into broad use since the 1980s especially as theory used in literary studies has increasingly been influenced by european philosophy and social theory this version of critical theory derives from the notion of literary criticism as establishing and enhancing the understanding and evaluation of literature in the search for truth some consider literary theory merely an aesthetic concern as articulated for example in joseph addisons notion of a critic as one who helps understand and interpret literary works  a true critic ought to dwell rather upon excellencies than imperfections to discover the concealed beauties of a writer and communicate to the world such things as are worth their observation  this notion of criticism ultimately goes back to aristotles poetics as a theory of literature in the 1940s and 50s new criticism had tried to analyze literary texts purely internally  starting in the 1960s literary scholars reacting against this began to use analytical tools from critical social theory  initially semiotic linguistic and interpretive theory then structuralism lacanian psychoanalysis poststructuralism and deconstruction as well as continental philosophy especially phenomenology and hermeneutics and various other forms of neomarxian theory thus literary criticism became highly theoretical and some of those practicing it began referring to the theoretical dimension of their work as critical theory  a philosophically inspired theory of literary criticism  and thus incidentally critical theory in the sociological sense also became especially among literary scholars of leftwing sympathies one of a number of influences upon and streams within critical theory in the literary sense with the expansion of the mass media and masspopular culture in the 1960s and 1970s and the blending of social and cultural criticism and literary criticism the methods of both kinds of critical theory sometimes intertwined in the analysis of phenomena of popular culture as in the emerging field of cultural studies in which concepts deriving from marxian theory poststructuralism semiology psychoanalysis and feminist theory would be found in the same interpretive work  both strands were often present in the various modalities of postmodern theory the two points at which there is the greatest overlap or mutual impingement of the two versions of critical theory are in their interrelated foci on language symbolism and communication and in their focus on social construction from the 1960s and 1970s onward language symbolism text and meaning came to be seen as the theoretical foundation for the humanities through the influence of ludwig wittgenstein ferdinand de saussure george herbert mead noam chomsky hansgeorg gadamer roland barthes jacques derrida and other thinkers in linguistic and analytic philosophy structural linguistics symbolic interactionism hermeneutics semiology linguistically oriented psychoanalysis jacques lacan alfred lorenzer and deconstruction when in the 1970s and 1980s jrgen habermas redefined critical social theory as a theory of communication ie communicative competence and communicative rationality on the one hand distorted communication on the other the two versions of critical theory began to overlap or intertwine to a much greater degree than before both versions of critical theory have focused on the processes by which human communication culture and political consciousness are created  this includes there is a common interest in the processes often of a linguistic or symbolic kind that give rise to observable phenomena and here there is some mutual influence among the different versions of critical theory ultimately this emphasis on production and construction goes back to the revolution wrought by kant in philosophy namely his focus in the critique of pure reason on synthesis according to rules as the fundamental activity of the mind that creates the order of our experience 
carinatae the carinatae are in phylogenetic taxonomy the last common ancestor of the neornithes modern birds and ichthyornis an extinct seabird of the cretaceous and all its descendants  defined in this way the group includes all modern birds both living and recently extinct and a few mesozoic forms traditionally carinatae were defined as all birds whose sternum breast bone has a keel carina the keel is a strong median ridge running down the length of the sternum  this is an important area for the attachment of flight muscles  thus all flying birds have a pronounced keel  ratites all of whom are flightless lack a strong keel  thus living birds were divided into carinates keeled and ratites from ratis raft referring to the flatness of the sternum the difficulty with this scheme phylogenetically was that some flightless birds without strong carinae are descended directly from ordinary flying birds with carinae  examples include the kakapo a flightless parrot and the dodo a columbiform the pigeon family  none of these birds are ratites  thus this supposedly distinctive feature was easy to use but had nothing to do with actual phylogenic relationship the use of a term for keeled sternum to describe the ichthyornisneornithine group turned out to be equally inapt  various dinosaurs  apparently remote ancestors and cousins of the carinatae  do possess a keeled sternum  so evidently the presence of this structure does not necessarily imply its use in flight  this sort of definitional problem is one reason why the use of physical characteristics to name taxonomic groups is now discouraged the characteristics that actually are unique to the carinatae have little to do with the sternum  rather carinates are unique in having for example a globeshaped convex head on the humerus and fully fused bones in the lower leg and outer arm they also have a pterygoid bone that articulates with the palatine by means of a joint the vomer is reduced or absent 
chuckjones after his career at warner bros ended in 1962 jones started sib tower 12 productions and began producing cartoons for metrogoldwynmayer including a new series of tom and jerry shorts and the television adaptation of dr seuss how the grinch stole christmas he later started his own studio chuck jones productions which created several oneshot specials and periodically worked on looney tunes related works jones was born in spokane washington on september 21 1912  he later moved with his parents and three siblings to the los angeles california area in his autobiography chuck amuck jones credits his artistic bent to circumstances surrounding his father who was an unsuccessful businessman in california in the 1920s  his father jones recounts would start every new business venture by purchasing new stationery and new pencils with the company name on them  when the business failed his father would quietly turn the huge stacks of useless stationery and pencils over to his children requiring them to use up all the material as fast as possible  armed with an endless supply of highquality paper and pencils the children drew constantly  later in one art school class the professor gravely informed the students that they each had 100000 bad drawings in them that they must first get past before they could possibly draw anything worthwhile  jones recounted years later that this pronouncement came as a great relief to him as he was well past the 200000 mark having used up all that stationery  jones and several of his siblings went on to artistic careers after graduating from chouinard art institute jones held a number of lowranking jobs in the animation industry including washing cels at the ub iwerks studio and assistant animator at the walter lantz studio  while at iwerks he met a cel painter named dorothy webster who would later become his first wife chuck jones joined leon schlesinger productions the independent studio that produced looney tunes and merrie melodies for warner bros in 1933 as an assistant animator  in 1935 he was promoted to animator and assigned to work with new schlesinger director tex avery there was no room for the new avery unit in schlesingers small studio so avery jones and fellow animators bob clampett virgil ross and sid sutherland were moved into a small adjacent building they dubbed termite terrace when clampett was promoted to director in 1937 jones was assigned to his unit the clampett unit was briefly assigned to work with jones old employer ub iwerks when iwerks subcontracted four cartoons to schlesinger in 1937  jones became a director or supervisor the original title for an animation director in the studio himself in 1938 when frank tashlin left the studio  jones first cartoon was the night watchman which featured a cute kitten who would later evolve into sniffles the mouse many of jones cartoons of the 1930s and early 1940s were lavishly animated but audiences and fellow schlesinger staff members found them lacking in genuine humor   often slowmoving and overbearing with cuteness jones early cartoons were an attempt to follow in the footsteps of walt disneys shorts especially with such cartoons as tom thumb in trouble and the sniffles cartoons  jones finally left traditional animation conventions with the cartoon the dover boys in 1942   jones credits this cartoon as the film where he learned how to be funny the dover boys is also one of the first uses of stylized animation in american film breaking away from the more realistic animation styles influenced by the disney studio this was also the period where jones created many of his lesserknown characters including charlie dog hubie and bertie and the three bears despite their relative obscurity today the shorts starring these characters represent some of jones earliest work that was strictly intended to be funny during the world war ii years jones worked closely with theodor geisel also known as dr seuss to create the private snafu series of army educational cartoons  private snafu comically educated soldiers on topics like spies and laziness in a more risque way than general audiences would have been used to at the time  jones would later collaborate with seuss on a number of adaptations of seuss books to animated form most importantly how the grinch stole christmas in 1966 also during world war ii jones directed such shorts as the weakly reporter a 1944 short that related to shortages and rationing on the home front   during the same year he directed hellbent for election a campaign film for franklin d roosevelt not widely known he also directed angel puss in this period which contains portrayals of africanamericans that are now considered offensive it is no longer available in any type of authorized release and is among the group of controversial cartoons known to animation buffs as the censored eleven jones hit his stride in the late 1940s and continued to make his bestregarded works through the 1950s  jonescreated characters from this period includes claude cat marc antony and pussyfoot charlie dog michigan j frog and his three most popular creations pepe lepew the road runner and wile e coyote the road runner cartoons in addition to the cartoons that are considered his masterpieces all written and conceived by michael maltese duck amuck one froggy evening and whats opera doc are today hailed by critics as some of the best cartoons ever made the staff of the jones unit a were as important to the success of these cartoons as jones himself  key members included writer maltese layout artistbackground designercodirector maurice noble animator and codirector abe levitow and animators ken harris and ben washam in 1950 jones and maltese began working on rabbit fire a short that changed daffy ducks personality forever they decided to make him a totally different character instead of the wacky comic relief character he had been they turned daffy into a vain egomaniacal prima donna wanting to steal the spotlight from bugs bunny of his versions of bugs and daffy chuck jones has said bugs is who we want to be  daffy is who we are jones remained at warner bros throughout the 1950s except for a brief period in 1953 when warner closed the animation studio  during this interim jones found employment at walt disney pictures where he teamed with ward kimball for a four month period of uncredited work on sleeping beauty 1959  upon the reopening of the warner animation department jones was rehired and reunited with most of his unit in the early1960s jones and his wife dorothy wrote the screenplay for the animated feature gay purree the finished film would feature the voices of judy garland robert goulet and red buttons as cats in paris france the feature was produced by upa and directed by his former warner collaborator abe levitow jones moonlighted to work on the film since he had an exclusive contract with warner bros upa completed the film and made it available for distribution in 1962 it was picked up by warner bros when warner discovered that jones had violated his exclusive contract with them they terminated him  jones former animation unit was laid off after completing the final cartoon in their pipeline the iceman ducketh and the rest of the warner bros cartoons studio was closed in early 1963 with business partner les goldman jones started an independent animation studio sib tower 12 productions bringing on most of his unit from warner bros including maurice noble and michael maltese in 1963 metrogoldwynmayer contracted with sib tower 12 to have jones and his staff produce new tom and jerry cartoons  in 1964 sib tower 12 was absorbed by mgm and was renamed mgm animationvisual arts jones animated short film the dot and the line a romance in lower mathematics won the 1965 oscar for best animated short jones also directed the classic animated short the bear that wasnt as the tom and jerry series wound down it would be discontinued in 1967 jones moved on to television  in 1966 he produced and directed the tv special how the grinch stole christmas featuring the voice and facial features of boris karloff jones continued to work on tv specials such as horton hears a who 1970 but his main focus during this time was producing the feature film the phantom tollbooth which did lukewarm business when mgm released it in 1970  jones codirected 1969s the pogo special birthday special based on the walt kelly comic strip and voiced the characters of porky pine and bun rab mgm closed the animation division in 1970 and jones once again started his own studio chuck jones productions he produced a saturday morning childrens tv series for the american broadcasting company called the curiosity shop in 1971  in 1973 he produced an animated version of the george selden book the cricket in times square and would go on to produce two sequels  his most notable work during this period was three animated tv adaptations of short stories from rudyard kiplings the jungle book mowglis brothers the white seal and rikkitikkitavi jones resumed working with warner bros in 1976 with the animated tv adaptation of the carnival of the animals with bugs bunny and daffy duck jones also produced the 1979 movie the bugs bunnyroad runner movie  which was a compilation of jones best theatrical shorts jones produced new road runner shorts for the electric company series and bugs bunnys looney christmas tales 1979 and even newer shorts were made for bugs bunnys bustin out all over 1980 from 19771978 jones wrote and drew the syndicated comic strip crawford also known as crawford  morgan for the chicago tribuneny news syndicate in 1978 jones wife dorothy died three years later he married marian dern the writer of the comic strip rick oshay from 2001  2002 cartoon network aired the chuck jones show which features shorts directed by him the show won the annie award for outstanding achievement in an animated special project through the 1980s and 1990s jones was painting cartoon and parody art sold through animation galleries by his daughters company linda jones enterprises jones was the creative consultant and character designer for the first alvin and the chipmunks christmas special a chipmunk christmas he was also creating new cartoons for the internet based on his new character thomas timberwolf he made a cameo appearance in the 1984 film gremlins and directed the bugs bunnydaffy duck animated sequences that bookend gremlins 2  the new batch 1990  jones also directed animated sequences various features such as a lengthy sequence in the 1992 film stay tuned and a shorter one seen at the start of the 1993 film mrs doubtfire jones was not a fan of much contemporary animation terming most of it especially television cartoons such as those of hannabarbera illustrated radio in 1988 jones contributed to the creation of londons museum of the moving image by spending several days working high on scaffolding creating a chase sequence directly onto the high walls of the museum jones was a historical authority as well as a major contributor to the development of animation throughout the 20th century he received an honorary degree from oglethorpe university in 1993 in his later years jones became the most vocal alumnus of the termite terrace studio frequently giving lectures seminars and working to educate newcomers in the animation field  many of his principles therefore found their way back into the mainstream animation consciousness and can be seen in films such as the emperors new groove and lilo  stitch for his contribution to the motion picture industry jones has a star on the hollywood walk of fame at 7011 hollywood blvd jones whose work had been nominated eight times over his career for an oscar winning thrice  for scentimental reasons so much for so little and the dot and the line received an honorary academy award in 1996 by the board of governors of the academy of motion picture arts and sciences for the creation of classic cartoons and cartoon characters whose animated lives have brought joy to our real ones for more than half a century   at that years awards show robin williams a selfconfessed jonesaholic presented the honorary award to jones calling him the orson welles of cartoons jones final looney tunes cartoon was from hare to eternity in 1996 which starred bugs bunny and yosemite sam with greg burson voicing bugs the cartoon was dedicated to friz freleng who had passed on in 1995  jones did produce a few more looney tunesbased and nonrelated cartoons a noticeable one being chariots of fur his final road runner cartoon in 1994 jones the second to last surviving animation director from the termite terrace days of the wb cartoons died of heart failure in 2002  he was cremated after the funeral service and his ashes were scattered at sea  cartoon network aired a 30second segment with black dots tracing jones  portrait with the words well miss you  cartoon network fading in on the righthand side which aired during a fourhour installment of the looney tunes show that featured nothing but chuck jones most memorable cartoon shorts after his death the looney tunes cartoon daffy duck for president based on the book that jones had written and using  jones style for the characters originally scheduled to be released in 2000 was released in 2004 
chetatkins atkinss picking style inspired by merle travis django reinhardt george barnes and les paul brought him admirers within and outside the country scene both in the united states and internationally  atkins produced records for perry como elvis presley the everly brothers eddy arnold don gibson jim reeves jerry reed skeeter davis connie smith waylon jennings and others among many honors atkins received 14 grammy awards as well as the grammy lifetime achievement award nine country music association instrumentalist of the year awards and was inducted into the country music hall of fame and museum chet atkins was born on june 20 1924 in luttrell tennessee near clinch mountain and grew up with his mother two brothers and a sisterhe was the youngest  his parents divorced when he was six he started out on the ukulele later moving on to the fiddle but traded his brother lowell an old pistol and some chores for a guitar when he was nine he stated in his 1974 autobiography we were so poor and everybody around us was so poor that it was the forties before anyone even knew there had been a depression  forced to relocate to fortson georgia to live with his father due to a nearfatal asthma condition atkins was a sensitive youth who made music his obsession  because of his illness he was forced to sleep in a straightback chair in order to breathe comfortably  on those nights he would play his guitar until he fell asleep holding it a habit which lasted his whole life  while living in fortson he attended historic mountain hill school he would return in the 1990s to play a series of charity concerts to save the school from demolition stories have been told about the very young chet who when a friend or relative would come to visit and if that person played a guitar would crowd in and put his ear so very close to the instrument that it became difficult for that person to play atkins became an accomplished guitarist while he was in high school  his first guitar had a nail for a nut and was so bowed that only the first few frets could be used he later purchased a semiacoustic electric guitar and amp but he had to travel many miles to find an electrical outlet since his home had no electricity later in life he lightheartedly gave himself along with john knowles tommy emmanuel steve wariner and jerry reed the honorary degree cgp standing for certified guitar player atkins did not have a strong style of his own until 1939 when while still living in georgia he heard merle travis picking over wlw radio  this early influence dramatically shaped his unique playing style  whereas traviss right hand used his index finger for the melody and thumb for bass notes atkins expanded his right hand style to include picking with his first three fingers with the thumb on bass chet atkins was a ham radio general class licensee  formerly using the callsign wa4czd he obtained the vanity call sign w4cgp in 1998 to reflect the cgp name he was an arrl member after dropping out of high school in 1942 atkins landed a job at wnoxam radio in knoxville there he played fiddle and guitar with singer bill carlisle and comic archie campbell as well as becoming a member of the stations dixieland swingsters a small swing instrumental combo  after three years he moved to wlwam in cincinnati ohio where merle travis had formerly worked after six months he moved to raleigh and worked with johnnie and jack before heading for richmond virginia where he performed with sunshine sue workman atkinss shy personality worked against him as did the fact that his sophisticated style led many to doubt he was truly country he was fired often but was soon able to land another job at another radio station due to his unique playing ability traveling to chicago atkins auditioned for red foley who was leaving his star position on wlsams national barn dance to join the grand ole opry atkins made his first appearance at the opry in 1946 as a member of foleys band he also recorded a single for nashvillebased bullet records that year  that single guitar blues was fairly progressive including as it did a clarinet solo by nashville dance band musician dutch mcmillan with owen bradley on piano he had a solo spot on the opry but when that was cut atkins moved on to kwtoam in springfield missouri despite the support of executive si siman however he was soon was fired for not sounding country enough while working with a western band in denver colorado atkins came to the attention of rca victor siman had been encouraging steve sholes to sign atkins as his style with the success of merle travis as a hit recording artist was suddenly in vogue  sholes ar director of country music at rca tracked atkins down to denver he made his first rca recordings in chicago in 1947  they did not sell he did some studio work for rca that year but had relocated to knoxville again where he worked with homer and jethro on wnoxs new saturday night radio show the tennessee barn dance and the popular midday merry go round in 1949 he left wnox to join mother maybelle and the carter sisters back on kwto this incarnation of the old carter family featured maybelle carter and daughters june helen and anita their work soon attracted attention from the grand ole opry the group relocated to nashville in mid1950  atkins began working on recording sessions performing on wsmam and the opry while he hadnt yet had a hit record on rca his stature was growing he began assisting sholes as a session leader when the new yorkbased producer needed help organizing nashville sessions for rca artists  atkinss first hit single was mr sandman followed by silver bell which he did as a duet with hank snow his albums also became more popular and he was featured on abctvs the eddy arnold show during the summer of 1956 as well as on country music jubilee in 1957 and 58 by then renamed jubilee usa in addition to recording atkins became a design consultant for gretsch who manufactured a popular chet atkins line of electric guitars from 19551980  atkins also became manager of rcas nashville studio eventually inspiring and seeing the completion of the legendary rca studio b the first studio built specifically for the purpose of recording on the nowfamous music row when sholes took over pop production in 1957a result of his success with elvis presleyhe put atkins in charge of rcas nashville division  with country music record sales declining as rock and roll took over atkins and bob ferguson took their cue from owen bradley and eliminated fiddles and steel guitar as a means of making country singers appeal to pop fans  this became known as the nashville sound which atkins said was a label created by the media attached to a style of recording done during that period to keep country and their jobs viable atkins used the jordanaires and a rhythm section on hits like jim reeves four walls and hell have to go and don gibsons oh lonesome me and blue blue day the once rare phenomenon of having a country hit cross over to pop success became more common he and bradley had essentially put the producer in the drivers seat guiding an artists choice of material and the musical background atkins made his own records which usually visited pop standards and jazz in a sophisticated home studio often recording the rhythm tracks at rca but adding his solo parts at home refining it until the result satisfied him at the end of march 1959 porter took over as chief engineer at rcas nashville studio in the space now known as studio b at the time there was only one studio at rca with no letter designation porter soon helped atkins get a better reverberation sound from the studios german effects device an emt plate reverb  with his golden ear porter found the studios acoustics to be problematic and he devised a set of acoustic baffles to hang from the ceiling then selected positions for microphones based on resonant room modes the sound of the recordings improved significantly and the studio achieved a string of successes the nashville sound became more dynamic  in later years when bradley asked how he achieved his sound atkins told him it was porter porter described atkins as respectful of musicians when recordingif someone were out of tune he would not single that person out by name  instead he would say something like we got a little tuning problem  everybody check and see whats going on atkinss trademark atkins style of playing uses the thumb and first twosometimes threefingers of the right hand he developed this style from listening to merle travis occasionally on a primitive radio he was sure no one could play that articulately with just the thumb and index finger which was exactly how travis played and he assumed it required the thumb and two fingersand that was the style he pioneered and mastered he enjoyed jamming with fellow studio musicians which led to them being asked to perform at the newport jazz festival in 1960  although that performance was canceled due to rioting a live recording of the group after the riot at newport was released  atkins performed by invitation at the white house for presidents kennedy through george h w bush atkins was a member of the million dollar band during the 1980s he is also wellknown for his song yankee doodle dixie in which he played yankee doodle at the same time as dixie simultaneously on the same guitar before his mentor sholes died in 1968 atkins had become vice president of rcas country division he had brought waylon jennings willie nelson connie smith bobby bare dolly parton jerry reed and john hartford to the label in the 1960s and inspired and helped countless others he took a considerable risk during the mid1960s when the civil rights movement sparked violence throughout the south by signing country musics first africanamerican singer charley pride who sang rawer country than the smoother music atkins had pioneered atkinss own biggest hit single came in 1965 with yakety axe an adaptation of his friend saxophonist boots randolphs yakety sax he rarely performed in those days and eventually had to hire other rca producers like bob ferguson and felton jarvis to alleviate his workload in the 1970s atkins became increasingly stressed by his executive duties he produced fewer records but could still turn out hits such as perry comos pop hit and i love you so he recorded extensively with close friend and fellow picker jerry reed whod become a hit artist in his own right a 1973 diagnosis of colon cancer however led atkins to redefine his role at rca to allow others to handle administration while he went back to his first love the guitar often recording with reed or even homer  jethros jethro burns atkinss brotherinlaw after homer died in 1971 by the end of the 1970s atkinss time had passed as a producer  new executives at rca had different ideas he first retired from his position in the company and then began to feel stifled as an artist because rca would not let him branch out into jazz  his mid1970s collaborations with one of his influences les paul chester  lester and guitar monsters had already reflected that interest chester  lester was one of the bestselling recordings of atkinss career  at the same time he grew dissatisfied with the direction gretsch no longer familyowned was going and withdrew his authorization for them to use his name and began designing guitars with gibson he left rca in 1982 and signed with columbia records for whom he produced a debut album in 1983 jazz had always been a strong love of his and often in his career he was criticized by pure country musicians for his jazz influences he also said on many occasions that he did not like being called a country guitarist insisting that he was a guitarist period  although he played by ear and was a masterful improviser he was able to read music and even performed some classical guitar pieces  when roger c field a friend suggested to him in 1991 that he record and perform with a female singer he did so with suzy bogguss he returned to his country roots for albums he recorded with mark knopfler and jerry reed in later years he even went back to radio appearing on garrison keillors prairie home companion radio program on american public media radio even picking up a fiddle from time to time atkins received numerous awards including 14 grammy awards and nine country music association instrumentalist of the year awards atkins is notable for his broad influence  his love for numerous styles of music can be traced from his early recording of stridepianist james p johnsons johnson rag all the way to the rock stylings of eric johnson an invited guest on atkinss recording sessions who when chet attempted to copy his influential rocker cliffs of dover  led to atkinss creation of a unique arrangement of londonderry air danny boy chets recordings of malaguena inspired a new generation of flamenco guitarists the classical guitar selections included on almost all his albums were for many american artists working in the field today the first classical guitar they ever heard he recorded smooth jazz guitar still played on american airwaves today while he did more performing in the 1990s his health grew frail as he was diagnosed with cancer again in 1996  he died on june 30 2001 at his home in nashville atkins was laid to rest at harpeth hills memory gardens in nashville atkins was quoted many times throughout his career and of his own legacy he once said a stretch of interstate 185 in southwest georgia between lagrange and columbus is named chet atkins parkway this stretch of interstate runs through fortson ga where atkins spent much of his childhood in 2002 atkins was posthumously inducted into the rock and roll hall of fame at the age of 13 jazz guitarist earl klugh was captivated watching atkinss guitar playing on the perry como show atkins also inspired drexl jonez and tommy emmanuel clint blacks album nothin but the taillights includes the song ode to chet which includes the lines cause i can win her over like romeo did juliet if i can only show her i can almost pick that legato lick like chet and itll take more than mel bay 1 2  3 if im ever gonna play like cgp atkins plays guitar on the track  at the end of the song black and atkins have a brief conversation 
theamazingcriswell criswell was flamboyant with spit curled hair a stentorian speaking style and a sequined tuxedo he owned a coffin in which he claimed to sleep he grew up in a troubled family in indiana with relatives who owned a funeral home and said that he became comfortable with sleeping in caskets in the storeroom the casket appeared in one of ed woods later works the 1971 pornographic film necromania criswell said he had once worked as a radio announcer and news broadcaster he began buying time on a local los angeles television station in the early 1950s to run infomercials for his criswell family vitamins to fill the time he began his criswell predicts part of the show they made him a minor offbeat celebrity in los angeles and around hollywood and his friendship with old showbusiness types like mae west and rising fringe celebrities like korla pandit made criswell an entertaining presence at parties  his fame brought him appearances on the jack paar show 19571962 and he published two books of predictions criswell found cinematic infamy in the movies of ed wood criswells predictions were nationally syndicated and he appeared on the television show criswell predicts on klac channel 13 now kcop13 in los angeles as well as being recorded for syndication  his announcer was bob shields who later played the judge on divorce court criswell wore heavy makeup in public after his live program was broadcast in los angeles only selected people were allowed in the kcop studio during his broadcast they were often taken to the brown derby restaurant afterwards as his guests criswell wrote several books of predictions including 1968s criswell predicts from now to the year 2000  in it he claimed that denver would be struck by a ray from space that would cause all metal to adopt the qualities of rubber leading to horrific accidents at amusement parks he predicted mass cannibalism and the end of planet earth which he set as happening on august 18 1999 criswell was a student of history he believed history repeated itself that the united states were the modern romans each day he read the st louis postdispatch looking for clues for his predictions  in later years he became obsessed with the maya calendar and read all he could find  just prior to his death he told people that his end of the world predictions were incorrect by a dozen years and that the world would end on the morning of the winter solstice in 2012 the last day of current 5000plus years cycle of the mayan calendar some sources claim criswells most famous prediction was on the jack paar program 196265 in march 1963 when he predicted john f kennedy would not run for reelection in 1964 because something was going to happen to him in november 1963 sources say that criswell never claimed to be a real psychic however those who knew him such as actress and fellow plan 9 alumna maila nurmi vampira believed he was  according to writer charles a coulombe whose family rented an apartment from him criswell told coulombes father i had the gift but lost it when i started taking money for it criswell married a former speakeasy dancer named halo meadows who appeared on you bet your life and whom coulombe describes as quite mad  mrs criswell had a huge standard poodle named buttercup which she was convinced was the reincarnation of her cousin thomas she spent a great deal of time sunbathing which given her size was not too pleasing a sight mae west used criswell as her personal psychic he once predicted her rise to president of the united states whereupon she criswell and george liberace the brother of showman liberace would take a rocket to the moon it is said that west sold criswell her old luxury cars for five dollars on may wests 1955 album the fabulous mae west she recorded a song criswell predicts criswell has been portrayed by many different actors over the years  perhaps the most notable portrayal was by jeffery jones in the 1994 tim burton biopic ed wood since 1997 several stage actors including sean phillip mabrey have played criswell in plan 9 from outer space the musical written by david g smith another incarnation of criswell would appear in the 1999 homage to low budget films devil girls on september 9 2009 a teaser trailer was released by darkstone entertainment for the upcoming john johnson film plan 9 a remake of plan 9 from outer space the voice of popular television horror host mr lobo can be heard narrating the trailer as criswell he will also star in the film as criswell who has a much larger role in this reimagining of the original ed wood story  in addition for the purpose of promoting the film on the internet mr lobo has produced 62 episodes of criswell predicts which is a parody and homage to criswells original television program of the same name sans the exclamation mark 
diatomicmolecule hundreds of diatomic molecules have been characterized in the terrestrial environment laboratory and interstellar medium   about 99 of the earths atmosphere is composed of diatomic molecules specifically oxygen and nitrogen at 21 and 78 respectively the natural abundance of  hydrogen h2 in the earths atmosphere is only on the order of parts per million but h2 is in fact the most abundant diatomic molecule seen in nature the interstellar medium is indeed dominated by hydrogen atoms elements that consist of diatomic molecules under typical laboratory conditions of 1 bar and 25 c include  hydrogen h2 nitrogen n2 oxygen o2 and the halogens  again many other diatomics are possible and form when elements are evaporated but these diatomic species repolymerize at lower temperatures   for example heating cracking elemental phosphorus gives diphosphorus if a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element such as h2 and o2 then it is said to be homonuclear but otherwise it is heteronuclear such as with co or no the bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is nonpolar and covalent   in most diatomic molecules the elements are nonidentical   prominent examples include carbon monoxide nitric oxide and hydrogen chloride but other important examples include mgo and nacl diatomic molecules cannot have any geometry but linear as any two points always lie in a line  this is the simplest spatial arrangement of atoms after the sphericity of single atoms diatomic elements played an important role in the elucidation of the concepts of element atom and molecule in the 19th century because some of the most common elements such as hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen occur as diatomic molecules  john daltons original atomic hypothesis assumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another  for example dalton assumed that waters formula was ho giving the atomic weight of oxygen as 8 times that of hydrogen instead of the modern value of about 16  as a consequence confusion existed regarding atomic weights and molecular formulas for about half a century as early as 1805 gaylussac and von humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen and by 1811 amedeo avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of waters composition based on what is now called avogadros law and the assumption of diatomic elemental molecules   however these results were mostly ignored until 1860   part of this rejection was due to the belief that atoms of one element would have no chemical affinity towards atoms of the same element and part was due to apparent exceptions to avogadros law that were not explained until later in terms of dissociating molecules at the 1860 karlsruhe congress on atomic weights cannizzaro resurrected avogadros ideas and used them to produce a consistent table of atomic weights which mostly agree with modern values  these weights were an important prerequisite for the discovery of the periodic law by dmitri mendeleev and lothar meyer it is convenient and common to represent a diatomic molecule as two point masses the two atoms connected by a massless spring the energies involved in the various motions of the molecule can then be broken down into three categories the translational energy of the molecule is simply given by the kinetic energy expression classically the kinetic energy of rotation is for microscopic atomiclevel systems like a molecule angular momentum can only have specific discrete values given by also for a diatomic molecule the moment of inertia is so substituting the angular momentum and moment of inertia into erot the rotational energy levels of a diatomic molecule are given by another way a diatomic molecule can move is to have each atom oscillate  or vibrate  along a line the bond connecting the two atoms the vibrational energy is approximately that of a quantum harmonic oscillator the lowest rotational energy level of a diatomic molecule occurs for l0 and gives erot  0  for o2 the next highest quantum level l1 has an energy of roughly this spacing between the lowest two rotational energy levels of o2 is comparable to that of a photon in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum the lowest vibrational energy level occurs for n0 and a typical vibration frequency is 5 x 1013 hz doing a calculation similar to that above gives so the spacing and the energy of a typical spectroscopic transition between vibrational energy levels is about 100 times greater than that of a typical transition between rotational energy levels 
historyofthedemocraticrepublicofthecongo the area now known as the democratic republic of the congo was populated as early as 10000 years ago and settled in the  6th and 7th centuries ad by bantus from presentday nigeria during its history the area has also been known as congo congo free state belgian congo and zaire the kingdom of kongo was a powerful kingdom that existed from the 14th to the 18th century it was the dominant force in the region until the arrival of the portuguese second in importance was the anziku kingdom the congo free state was a corporate state privately controlled by leopold ii king of the belgians through the association internationale africaine a nongovernmental democracy  leopold was the sole shareholder and chairman the state included the entire area of the present democratic republic of the congo under leopold iis administration the congo free state became the site of one of the most infamous international scandals of the turn of the twentieth century the report of the british consul roger casement led to the arrest and punishment of white officials who had been responsible for coldblooded killings during a rubbercollecting expedition in 1903 including one belgian national for causing the shooting of at least 122 congolese natives  estimates of the total death toll vary considerably  in the absence of a census the first was made in 1924 it is even more difficult to quantify the population loss of the period  roger casements famous 1904 report estimated ten million people  according to casements report indiscriminate war starvation reduction of births and tropical diseases caused the countrys depopulation the european and us press agencies exposed the conditions in the congo free state to the public in 1900  by 1908 public and diplomatic pressure led leopold ii to the annex the congo as the belgian congo colony on november 15 1908 king lopold ii of belgium formally relinquished personal control of the congo free state the renamed belgian congo came under the administration of the belgian parliament which lasted until independence was granted in 1960  the belgian administration might be most charitably characterized as paternalistic colonialism  roman catholic and protestant churches dominated the education system and the curricula reflected christian and western values in 1948 christian missions controlled 996 of educational facilities they had little regard for native culture and beliefs  native schools provided a mainly religious and vocational education following a series of riots and unrest the belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country the belgians announced on january 27 1960 that they would relinquish control in six months the congo was granted its independence on june 30 1960 adopting the name republic of the congo rpublique du congo as the french colony of middle congo moyen congo also chose the name republic of congo upon receiving its independence the two countries were more commonly known as congolopoldville and congobrazzaville after their capital cities  in 1960 the country was in a very unstable stateregional tribal leaders held far more power than the central governmentand with the departure of the belgian administrators there were almost no skilled bureaucrats left in the country the first congolese university graduate was only in 1956 and virtually no one in the new nation had any idea of how to manage a country of such size parliamentary elections in 1960 produced the nationalist patrice lumumba as prime minister and prowestern joseph kasavubu as president of the renamed democratic republic of the congo even from this fleeting moment of independence democracy began to unravel a military coup broke out in the capital and rampant looting began  on july 11 the richest province of the country katanga seceded under moise tshombe the united nations sent 20000 peacekeepers to protect europeans in the country and try to restore order  western paramilitaries and mercenaries often hired by mining companies to protect their interests also began to pour into the country  in this same period congos second richest province kasai also announced its independence prime minister lumumba turned to the ussr for assistance  nikita khrushchev agreed to help offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors the united states viewed the soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a proxy state in subsaharan africa un forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country the united states also looked for a way to replace lumumba as leader  president kasavubu had clashed with prime minister lumumba and advocated an alliance with the west rather than the soviets the us sent weapons and cia personnel to aid forces allied with kasavubu and combat the soviet presence  in december 1960 with us and cia support kasavubu and his loyal colonel joseph mobutu overthrew the government  lumumba was assassinated by mobutu cronies with support of the belgian government soon after some have alleged that us president dwight d eisenhower gave the cia direct orders to assassinate lumumba but this has never been confirmed  according the same sources the american government was also in support of such an action  after some reverses un and congolese government forces succeeded in recapturing the breakaway provinces of katanga and south kasai in stanleyville those loyal to the deposed lumumba set up a rival government under antoine gizenga belgian british and us troops helped end the rebellion by 1996 tensions from the neighboring rwanda war and genocide had spilled over to zaire rwandan hutu militia forces interahamwe who had fled rwanda following the ascension of a tutsiled government had been using hutu refugees camps in eastern zaire as a basis for incursion against rwanda these hutu militia forces soon allied with the zairian armed forces faz to launch a campaign against congolese ethnic tutsis in eastern zaire in turn these tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks  when the zairian government began to escalate its massacres in november 1996 the tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against mobutu the tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries including rwanda and uganda this coalition led by laurentdsir kabila became known as the alliance des forces dmocratiques pour la libration du congozare afdl the afdl now seeking the broader goal of ousting mobutu made significant military gains in early 1997  following failed peace talks between mobutu and kabila in may 1997 mobutu left the country and kabila marched unopposed to kinshasa on may 20  kabila named himself president consolidated power around himself and the afdl and reverted the name of the country back to the democratic republic of congo kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country and lost his allies  movement for the liberation of congo mlc led by warlord jeanpierre bemba  attacked in august 1998 backed by rwandan and ugandan troops   soon afterwards angola zimbabwe and namibia became involved militarily in the drc with zimbabwe and angola supporting the government  while the six african governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in lusaka in july 1999 the congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months  however kabila was assassinated on 16 january 2001 by one of his bodyguards and was succeeded by his son joseph ten days later  upon taking office kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war he partly succeeded in february 2001 when a further peace deal was brokered between kabila rwanda and uganda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops  un peacekeepers monuc arrived in april 2001 currently the ugandans and the mlc still hold a convert200 wide section of the north of the country rwandan forces and its front the rassemblement congolais pour la dmocratie rcd control a large section of the east and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country  there were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country including diamonds copper zinc and coltan the conflict was reignited in january 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both uganda and rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops  talks between kabila and the rebel leaders held in sun city lasted a full six weeks beginning in april 2002  in june they signed a peace accord in which kabila would share power with former rebels  by june 2003 all foreign armies except those of rwanda had pulled out of congo dr congo had a transitional government in july 2003 until the election was over a constitution was approved by voters and on july 30 2006 the congo held its first multiparty elections since independence in 1960  after this joseph kabila took 45 of the votes and his opponent jeanpierre bemba took 20  that was the origin of a fight between the two parts from august 2022 2006 in the streets of the capital kinshasa sixteen people died before policemen and un mission monuc took control of the city a new election was held on october 29 2006 which kabila won with 70 of the vote  bemba has publicly commented on election irregularities despite the fact that every neutral observer has praised the elections  on december 6 2006 the transitional government came to an end as joseph kabila was sworn in as president the fragility of the state has allowed continued violence and human rights abuses in the east  there were three significant centers of conflict in december 2008 uganda dr congo and the government of south sudan launched a military attack against the lords resistance army lra in the garamba region of dr congo the lra is alleged to have killed at least 400 people in attacks on a number of villages in the dr congo on and after christmas day 2008  in october 2009 a new conflict started in dongo sudubangi province where clashes had broken out over access to fishing ponds  in march 2010 news emerged about a december 2009 massacre in dr congo perpetrated by the lra the following table shows the names that were formerly used in french and dutch for major cities during the colonial period   both languages now use the modern congolese names congo  a political tragedy is an independent documentary about the political history of drc 
transportinthedominicanrepublic there are five main highways dr1 dr2 dr3 dr4 dr5 they are in good condition in the dominican republic connecting its biggest cities and tourist centers  there are nearly convert12600 of highways and roads 6224 being paved and convert6376 1996 est unpaved  like any underdeveloped nation the dominican republic suffers from lack of good paved roads to connect smaller towns and less populated areas major town roads however are in good condition the santo domingo metro is the first mass transit system in the country and second in the caribbean  central american nations after the tren urbano in san juan puerto rico on feb 27th 2008 the incumbent president leonel fernndez test rode the system for the first time and free service was offered thereafter several times   commercial service started on january 30 2009  several additional lines are currently being planned the santiago light rail system is a planned light rail system in the dominican republics second largest city still in developing stages